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By Alla D. Mah

Titanium forms several compounds with oxygen and also is able to dissolve interstitially about 33 atomic percent of oxygen. Starting with titanium dioxide, reduction becomes increasingly difficult as oxygen is removed; and the final step, be reduction of the titanium-oxygen interstitial solutions, is by far the most difficult. The possibility of reducing titanium oxide, or of purifying titanium containing oxygen, by treatment with certain more volatile metals has been a subject of considerable interest. Theoretical appraisal of the limitations of this possibility, however, has been hampered by lack of adequate information on the thermodynamic properties of the titanium-oxygen solutions. The purpose of the present work was to remedy this difficulty by expanding the thermodynamic knowledge regarding these solutions. The experimental work involved three types of calorimetry and furnished the following information: (1) Heats of formation of 11 titanium-oxygen solutions, in the range of 0 to 10 wt.-percent oxygen, were determined at 298.15° K. As a byproduct, an improved value of the heat of formation of rutile was obtained, which, in turn, led to improved values of the heats of formation of the lower titanium-oxygen compounds. (2) Low-temperature heat-capacity data and entropies at 298.15°K in were determined for 2 representative titanium-oxygen interstitial solutions. (3) High-temperature heat-content data were obtained for 2 titanium-oxygen interstitial solutions to about 1,600° K.

Jan 1, 1957

The first metal-mine accident-prevention course was prepared and published in 1942--45 as a series of seven miners' circulars (Nos. 51-57). The scope of the course has been broadened, revised, and brought up to date, and it is being published as a similar series of seven miners' Circulars (Nos. 51-57, revised) on accident prevention in metal and nonmetallic mines. These circulars are: Accident Statistics (Miners' Circular 51), dealing with general statistics on accidents and injuries at metal and nonmetallic mines, including causes, costs, and the uses of investigations and reports of all accidents.

Jan 1, 1957

By G. W. Birge

As a part of its overall program of coal carbonization, the Bureau of Mines is studying the coking properties of coals that may be used for metallurgical purposes. The objectives of this study were given in detail in a previous report.2/ The inherent suitability of coal for metallurgical use depends primarily on (1) chemical composition, (2) preparation characteristics, and (3) carbonization behavior. The first two factors, as well as the available reserves, are considered in selecting coals for carbonization tests. The selection of coal beds in Westmoreland County for coking tests was based, in part, on estimates of the coal reserves by Dowd,3/ who estimated the recoverable reserves in beds 28 inches or more thick, in thousands of tons, as follows: [ ]

Jan 1, 1957

By C. W. Owings

Two problems perplex many coal-mine operators and employees. Is coal-mine dust harmful to breathe; and, if so, is it possible to keep the concentration below the danger point? The medical profession is not unanimous in its opinion of the danger of breathing bituminous-coal dust, but there appears to be ample and increasing evidence that coal-mine dust can be harmful if breathed in large enough doses for long periods. The question of controlling the dust at the point of formation is still unanswered in the minds of many in the mining industry. However, results of limited studies conducted by the Bureau of Mines in 9 bituminous-coal mines indicate that a full-shift average exposure of workers should not exceed about 20 million dust particles per cubic foot of air (m.p.p.c.f.) and that concentrations can be held within this limit without too much difficulty. Furthermore, these studies indicated that an exposure in the neighborhood of 40 m.p.p.c.f. should not be exceeded for an individual operation and that it is possible to hold within this ceiling.

Jan 1, 1957

By H. N. Dunning

A comprehensive production research program, now in progress at the Petroleum Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines at Bartlesville, Okla., includes studies of the displacement of petroleum from sand by detergent solutions. An earlier report (12)2/ presented the results of an extensive research program to determine the value of detergents as floodwater additives. This report presents later results of the detergent-testing program (13, 17). Although water-flooding methods and controls are constantly being improved to increase the production of oil from secondary-recovery operations, considerable crude oil commonly remains.in place after a water flood has been terminated. Therefore, the possibility of improving the efficiency of a waterflood by the use of detergents is of increasing interest. The effects of many substances on the efficiency of water flooding have been investigated in laboratory studies (5, 11, 13, 17, 19, 24). Of the various sub-stances tested, only surface-active agents were consistently effective in removing oil from sand. Results of laboratory studies presented in earlier reports (9, 11, 12, 13) show that many detergent solutions effectively displace petroleum from sand surfaces under varying conditions encountered in centrifuging, manual and mechanical agitation, ultrasonic vibration, and imbibition.

Jan 1, 1957

By F. D. Everett

The exploration work on a seleniferous tuff deposit near Lysite, Wyo., was confined chiefly to an area of approximately 1 square mile selected on the basis of prior examination and sampling work by the Bureau of Mines. This area was superficially explored by digging and sampling over 2,000 feet of trenches and 15 test pits. The surface sampling indicated that the deposit might contain a multimillion-ton reserve of easy-to-mine volcanic tuff assaying more than 0.01 percent Se. Later, 11 holes, ranging in depth from 57 to 135 feet and totaling 929.4 feet, were drilled under contract using a dry rotary drill. Samples for assay were cut at 5-foot intervals or at noticeable physical changes in the formation being drilled. Of the 206 samples assayed from the drilling, only 8 contained more than 0.005 percent selenium, and 2 of these assayed as high as 0.012 percent Se. Chemical analyses of samples obtained from six holes drilled by the Nugget Coal & Timber Co. to the south of the area explored by the Bureau of Mines showed that no selenium-bearing formations were encountered in that work. Two of 72 samples taken from 42 validation pits dug by claim holders contained more than 0.005 percent selenium. The exploratory work established that the selenium mineralization is erratically distributed in small irregular bodies and is not confined to any one tuff bed. Because of the lack of correlation between the infrequent showing of low-grade tuff, neither the extent nor grade of the reserves could be calculated.

Jan 1, 1957

By J. G. Kirby

According to the Bureau of Mines annual survey, there were 319 petroleum refineries in the United States as of January 1, 1957 capable of processing 9,123,674 [ ]-barrels of crude oil daily. This was the first time in eleven years that the total number of refineries increased. The crude throughput capacity of the refineries increased 491,284 barrels daily (6 percent) above the January 1, 1956 capacity. The East Coast and Texas Gulf Coast refining districts accounted for 60 percent of the additional capacity installed. Three new refineries were put into operation on the East Coast during the year with a total daily crude throughput capacity of 154,434 barrels while the other refineries in the district report a net loss in capacity, installing equipment capable of processing 140,000 barrels, but dismantling equipment with a capacity of 150,100 barrels. In the Texas Gulf Coast district, one new refinery with a daily crude oil capacity of 5,000 barrels was placed in operation in 1956 and 143,700 barrels of crude capacity was added to existing refineries. The capacity of the average refinery to process crude oil increased from 27,145 barrels daily to 28,601 barrels in 1956.

Jan 1, 1957

By J. W. Miller

An investigation was begun by the Bureau of Mines in 1948 to determine the preparation characteristics of American coals. Results of the investigation were planned to be reported on a county basis and, from the data developed, to determine: (a) Which coals, either as mined or after beneficiation by conventional preparation, are suitable chemically under present standards for producing metallurgical coke. (b) Which coals require special and more intensive treatment in preparation than is now practiced. (c) Which coals cannot be considered potential sources of metallurgical coke, regardless of preparation. This report is one in a county series and describes the preparation characteristics of the coals of Logan County, W. Va. According to present-day standards for metallurgical coal, many believe that the sulfur content of the coal should not exceed 1.25 percent? Coal with more than this amount has been used for making metallurgical coke, especially when blended with coal containing less sulfur. In this series of reports 1.25 percent sulfur is used as a gage to determine whether or not a coal will be suited for metallurgical coke.

Jan 1, 1957

By V. C. Petersen

The titanium-rich end of the titanium-germanium system was investigated by x-ray and metallographic methods and verified by resistivity and dilatometer measurements. A constitution diagram is proposed. The titanium-rich portion of the phase diagram is characterized by eutectic and peritectic reactions. The eutectic composition is 19 percent germanium, and the eutectic temperature 1,360° C. The peritectic reaction occurs at 905° C. and 4 percent germanium. Germanium is soluble in alpha titanium to a maximum of 4 percent at 905° C. and in beta titanium to a maximum of 12.5 percent at 1,360° C. Both limits of solubility decrease with decreasing temperatures. Although substantial quantities of germanium are soluble in beta titanium, beta is not retained on quenching. The beta phase probably transforms to alpha by a martensitic reaction.

Jan 1, 1957

By Irving Hartmann

The Experimental Coal Mine of the Bureau of Mines has served principally as a valuable and unique testing laboratory for studies of the explosibility of coal dust and mine gas; studies of the numerous complex and interrelated chemical and physical factors that govern the ignition of coal dust and the propagation of mine explosions; and studies designed to develop measures for preventing explosions or reducing their destructive effects. These researches, coupled with educational efforts by the Bureau of Mines and enlightened safety consciousness in the mining industry, had fruitful results. This is evidenced by the remarkable reduction in the frequency of major coal-mine explosions and the number of fatalities from explosions since the Bureau of Mines was established. Despite this progress, further important unresolved problems arise; these are due in part to changes in mining conditions and methods, which have brought about increased production of fine coal dust in highly mechanized operations. To solve the new problems, research must be continued without interruption. The results of many very recent and current studies in the Experimental Coal Mine are summarized briefly, and pertinent studies by European mine-safety-research organizations are listed.

Jan 1, 1957

By P. M. Gruzensky

In view of some of the outstanding properties of chromium, considerable effort has been made in recent years to prepare the high-purity metal in ductile form. The object of this investigation was to obtain such metal by electrolysis of chromic acid solutions and to determine the conditions that yield optimum results. The apparatus is described, as well as the parameters that received consideration. Ion-exchange resins were employed to remove cation impurities from the electrolyte. Tensile specimens prepared from the electrodeposits by arc melting, press forging, swaging, and drawing, were ductile at room temperature. INTRODUCTION Metallic chromium displays an exceptionally high resistance to corrosion, oxidation, and wear at elevated temperatures. Although these properties are utilized to some extent when chromium is alloyed with other metals, such as in stainless steels, high-chromium alloys and pure chromium are not employed as engineering materials because of a serious lack of ductility and impact resistance at room temperature. Because high-chromium alloys appear promising as refractory metals for applications such as in gas turbines, much interest has been shown recently in the preparation of uniformly ductile chromium and in determining which factors contribute to its brittleness.

Jan 1, 1957

By H. Kenworthy

The investigations described in this report were undertaken to demonstrate, on a laboratory scale, the possibility of recovering several million pounds of tin plus tungsten contained in stockpiled and currently rejected slags from the Longhorn tin smelter at Texas City, Tex. At the same time, it was anticipated that the treatment procedures developed might be applicable to slags from other tin-smelting operations. Results of the laboratory work show that it is possible, by pyrometallurgical means, to separate the tin and tungsten into products of intermediate grade that may be returned to the smelter circuits for further upgrading. Several methods of treatment were investigated. The methods that proved effective were: Fusion reduction, chloride volatilization, sulfide volatilization, and carbide formation. Over 90 percent of the tin and tungsten could be removed from the slat by any of these methods. Each type of treatment has advantages and disadvantages, and it could not be determined from the small-scale work which method was the more meritorious. Tungsten and (in some types of treatment) tin-bearing products were diluted by iron, the separation of which will require additional studies. Prevention of a portion of the iron from reporting with the tin or tungsten is a distinct advantage and possibility that will require inure laboratory work to develop the needed techniques for its accomplishment. Tin products from single treatments of stag ranged up to 75 percent in tin content but were more generally under 35 percent. Tungsten products were usually under 15 percent; but segregated portions could be selected, at a sacrifice in recovery, that contained up to 50 percent tungstic oxide equivalent.

Jan 1, 1957

By E. A. Magill

The Bureau of Mines has begun a study of the copper resources of the Cascade Mountains of Washington. The program includes reconnaissance of mineralized areas and examination and occasionally limited exploration of deposits that are considered characteristic of an area. The Bureau of Mines believes that published information may assist industry in searching for new sources of copper. The Miners Queen is one of a few Cascade Mountain deposits selected for prelim¬inary exploration. The investigation was not planned to delineate the ore body. A diamond-drilling program was carried out at the Miners Queen mine in the summer of 1955. Five diamond-drill holes were completed, totaling 628 feet. Two 35-foot shafts were dewatered, and all accessible underground and surface workings were examined.

Jan 1, 1957

By W. Dan Walker

In recent years the Federal Bureau of Mines tested and approved four new types of self-contained breathing apparatus and a facepiece designed for use with the McCaa 2-hour self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus. The Bureau also developed and perfected a battery-powered lifeline telephone for use in mine rescue and recovery operations. Some of this equipment is described in Bureau of Mines Information Circular 7413.4/ This publication is a revision of information Circular 7413 and presents pertinent information on more recently developed mine rescue equipment. The breathing apparatus described herein are 1/2- and 3/4-hour sell-contained types of much simpler design than the conventional 2-hour self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus ordinarily used by mine rescue crews; however, it is just as important to select rescue crews carefully and to train them properly in the use, care, and limitations of the newer types of apparatus as well as the older, established types, if the newer types are to be used safely. The Bureau of Mines recommends that 1/2- and 3/4-hour self-contained breathing apparatus be used only as auxiliary equipment in mine rescue and recovery work and that the capabilities and limitations of the apparatus should be well understood by those who wear the equipment.

Jan 1, 1957

By S. S. Clarke

This paper on methods and costs of mining at the Westside mine, in the Tri-State zinc-and lead-mining district (Missouri-Kansas-Oklahoma), is one of a series being prepared by the Bureau of Mines on mining practices, methods, and costs in various mining districts of the United States. Methods and equipment used in drilling, loading, and underground transportation have changed radically since the latest Bureau of Mines publications2/ on mining methods in the district were published more than 20 years ago. More efficient methods and machines have been developed in order to maintain low operating costs in the face of rising labor and supply costs and lower grade ore. The rate of conversion to mine mechanization was disappointing at times; local conditions required the development of special equipment, and available rock-moving machines had to be remodeled and strengthened.

Jan 1, 1957

By Wilbur A. Haley

One of the purposes of the investigation was to determine and report on how coal augers are used to mine bituminous coal that is near outcrops and may not be mined otherwise by any other present-day method. Such increased overall recovery results in the conservation of coal resources. Other reasons for the investigation were to determine and report the production rates of such operations and the types of equipment used. Auger mining of coal as a means of coal recovery supplementary to strip mining has been introduced and developed since World War II. This type of coal mining has grown rapidly, and bituminous-coal production by auger mining has been estimated at 6,000,000 tons in 1955. Mines were selected for study to give reasonably representative information on auger mining in different types and thicknesses of coal beds in different geographic areas and on different types and sizes of equipment operated under various conditions. This report is based on field studies of 8 auger-miming operations in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio and in 5 different coal beds. Operations were observed in active strip mines, in strip mines reopened for auger mining, and along benched coal-bed outcrops. At the time of this study, no augers were reported to be operating in underground mines. The diameters of holes drilled ranged from 26 to 52 inches, and the lengths of holes ranged up to 208 feet. At some operations auger holes often penetrated abandoned underground mine workings.

Jan 1, 1957

By J. B. Rosenbaum

This report presents new findings and consolidates previously published data to provide a single reference containing a concise and comprehensive description of the Bureau's work on electrolytic chromium. Two separate systems for electrolytic-chromium recovery were developed, one designated as the oxidized system the other as the reduced system. The electrowinning of chromium metal follows the dissolution of chromium from the ore or from ferrochrome and its separation from gangue and metallic impurities. Chromite was first solubilized by pressure digestion at slightly elevated temperatures in an oxidized acid solution using Na2Cr2O7 as an oxidizing agent. Later it was found that a sodium-free electrolyte was preferable, using return-cell anolyte containing H2SO4 and Cr03 as the oxidizing agent. Gangue materials were separated from the soluble metallics by filtration; and, after the Cr+3 had been stabilized, the metallic impurities were separated as crystalline ammonium salts by vacuum crystallization.

Jan 1, 1957

By V. A. Nieberlein

An extractive process was developed applicable to submarginal titanium deposits containing valuable minor constituents; such as columbium (niobium) and iron. The process consisted of reducing the mineral concentrate with coke at high temperature to form a carbide-suboxide sinter, chlorination in the 400° -500° C. range, and fractional condensation of the chlorides. The chlorination procedure recovered 97, 83, and 87 percent of the titanium from brookite, rutile, and ilmenite sinters, respectively, while simultaneous columbium recoveries on the same materials were 85, 50, and 87 percent.

Jan 1, 1957

By Oren C. Baptist

[Several new oilfields have been developed in northwestern Wyoming during the past 10 years, production is obtained from discontinuous, permeable sands enclosed within impermeable shales. The energy to drive the oil to producing wells in supplied by gas in solution in the oil. Most of the wells had high-initial potentials, but rates of oil production have steadily declined, indicating a dissipation of the driving energy and the possibility that large volumes of oil will remain unrecovered in the reservoirs. The studies reported in this paper were undertaken to develop laboratory data of the type most likely to be needed by persons studying the susceptibility of the Newcastle sand reservoir to secondary-recovery methods.]

Jan 1, 1957

By James E. Hill

In the course of exploratory drilling during World War II by the Bureau of Mines under the Strategic and Critical Minerals investigations Program, a problem arose as to the ultimate disposal of the drill core resulting from that program. The difficulties experienced in obtaining factual information to evaluate mineral deposits examined (during that program) influenced the Bureau in a decision to catalog and store the drill cores for future reference. Initially, the drill cores were stored at the nearest Bureau of Mines station that had space available for the purpose. Recently the Bureau stations at Minneapolis, Minn., and Denver, Colo., were designated as the locations of permanent drill-core storage facilities. Drill cores that are retained from Bureau of Mines mineral-exploration projects are stored at these two locations and are given preference in selecting cores for storage. Drill cores are accepted also for storage from other Government agencies, State agencies, private companies, or individuals on the basis of available facilities and consistent with the significance of the core in relation to Bureau of Mines objectives and national interest. Selection and acceptance of such drill core are determined by the Bureau of Mines. The drill cores stored at the two locations are available for inspection by any person having a legitimate interest in the mineral deposits represented by the cores. Approximately 1,850,000 feet of drill core can be stared in the facilities now available to the Bureau of Mines. Approximately 475,000 feet of drill care is stored or scheduled for storage at Minneapolis, Minn., and 240,000 feet of core stored or scheduled for storage at Denver, Colo. A list of drill core now in storage at the Bureau of Mines core-storage facilities at Denver and Minneapolis is included as appendix A.

Jan 1, 1957