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By Walshe JL, Solomon M

The Emperor vein system lies on the eastern margin of the Tavua volcanic structure. This is of Miocene age and occurs in basalts(the Mba Volcanics) probably underlain at about 2 km by calcite-rich sediments (the Vatukoro Formation). The lodes are generally flatmakes, or steep fault fillings, or complex shatter zones, and consist of quartz and altered wall rock. In areas of open cavities it is possible to establish a paragenesis which involves five quartz stages and two ore mineral stages. The first ore stage contains calaverite, krennerite, sylvanite and native tellurium, the second petzite, hessite and native gold. The quartz stages are thought to have formed slowly (102 years) from boiling solutions of low salinity at temperatures varying with time from about 250¦C to 190¦C. The system was sealed, the temperature gradient near vertical and the mass flux small. The ore mineral stages probably formed relatively rapidly (101years) from boiling solutions at 250¦ to 200¦C when the system was mainly open. Gold deposition was probably largely a result of fall in aH2S due to boiling, the calculated solution concentration falling from a maximum of about 8 ppb at 250¦C to about 8.10-3ppb at 200¦C. Boiling is also probably responsible for an increase in a02 (by loss of H2) and fall in aTe2 (by loss of H2Te). The fluids are thought to have had a large component of meteoric water and to have been heated by plutons in the core of the volcanic structure. Stable isotope data indicate that they derived their carbon from the underlying Vatukoro Formation and their sulphur from sediments. Circulation may have been confined to the outside of the volcanic structure because of the relatively low permeability of the flows, pyroclastics and dykes within it.

Jan 1, 1987

By Sarah P. Guerrino

This chapter summarizes data on crude nonfuel mineral production for the United States, its island possessions, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Included also are the tables that show the principal nonfuel mineral commodities exported from and imported into the United States and that compare world and U.S. mineral production. The detailed data from which these tables were derived are contained in the individual commodity chapters of Volume I and in the State chapters of Volume II of this edition of the Minerals Yearbook. Although crude mineral production may be measured at any of several stages of extraction and processing, the stage of measurement used in this chapter is what is normally termed ?mine output.? It usually refers to minerals or ores in the form in which they are first extracted from the ground, but customarily includes the output from auxiliary processing at or near the mines.

Jan 1, 1987

Palaeomagnetic work on the red beds of the Hervey Group from central N.S.W., and on the Mount Eclipse Sandstone from the Ngalia Basin, Central Australia, reveals a pre-deformational magnetization from the Hervey Group, which indicates a semi-equatorial palaeolatitude during the latest Devonian or earliest Carboniferous and a syn-deformational magnetization from the Mount Eclipse Sandstone which places Australia at a palaeolatitude of about 70¦ ¦ 20¦S during the early Late Carboniferous. By comparison with the existing data from Australia, the new results indicate that: (1) Australia (and thus eastern Gondwanaland) underwent a rapid southward movement of about 60¦ during the late Early and early Late Carboniferous, (2) the Lachlan Fold Belt has been part of cratonic Australia since at least latest Devonian or earliest Carboniferous, and (3) the New England region and cratonic Australia were at a similar palaeolatitude during earliest Carboniferous, but they may have undergone the rapid southward movement separately.

Jan 1, 1987

By G. A. Hazen, S. M. Sargand

This study monitored longwall mining subsidence profiles over three panels that were mined beneath state highways in southeastern Ohio. The average maximum subsidence was 1.07 m (3.5 ft). The average maximum compressive strain recorded was 0.008 mm/mm. Three predictive methods for the determination of displacements and strains were compared: the National Coal Board (NCB) graphical method, the profile method with empirical constants determined for southeastern Ohio, and a finite element excavation program. Excellent subsidence agreement was found with the profile method, and reasonable strain agreement was determined with the finite element program.

Jan 1, 1987

Tomago sandbeds is an unconfined coastal aquifer located 20km. north of Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia. These sandbeds extend over an area of about 130km. The average aquifer depth is about 20m. with a mean transmissivity of about 400sq.m/day and a specific yield of about 0.2. The city of Newcastle and surrounding areas derive water from Tomago for potable purposes. The average extraction being about 50 ML/day. The iron value of the ground water varies between 5 and 15mg/1. This iron is removed by a conventional water treatment plant using Alum. The aquifer whilst principally quartzose also contains deposits of heavy minerals like rutile, zircon, ilmenite, etc., The mineral sand mining has been in progress at Tomago since 1972. Mining is carried out in a con- structed pond with a water depth of about 5m. on which is floated a suction cutter dredge that moves across the front of the pond using a water jet to entrain the soil from the ground surface to the bottom of the mineralised zone. Effect of mineral sand mining on ground water quality, particularly iron, was the subject of intensive investigations undertaken at Tomago since 1970. The effect on water quality was studied by collecting and analysing water samples from network of observation wells established during the period of mining. Water samples were collected about 4-5 years prior to mining and analysed for iron, sulphate, chloride, pH, etc., After mining the observation wells were re-established at the same locations and water samples were collected and analysed for at least 5 years after mining. Water samples collected from majority of the observation wells indicate an increase in iron levels. The level of increase is very site specific. The increase in iron is also

Jan 1, 1987

By Ronald E. Heuer, Debra L. Virgens

INTRODUCTION Behavior of clay soils in response to tunneling is reasonably well understood by reference to the tunnel stability factor NT = Pz/su (Peck, 1969; Heuer, 1974). With this analysis tool, care must be taken to use a value of clay shear strength which represents the actual mass strength, considering such factors as slickensided fissures often found in stiff and hard clays. Behavior of clean sand and gravel soils is also reasonably well understood. Above the water table these soils must be assumed to act as running ground unless they are known to have significant cementation or have a very dense and angular interlocked grain structure. Below the water table they must be tunneled using some form of groundwater control such as dewatering, grouting, freezing, or internal fluid pressure in the tunnel such as compressed air or a slurry tunneling machine. The internal fluid pressure must approximately balance the external water head. Without such precautions these soils behave as flowing ground and may yield large volumes of water flow into the tunnel. A wide range of very fine sand, silty sand, cohesionless silt, and clayey sand soils exist in nature in a variety of geologic environments. The behavior of these soils in response to tunneling, and guidelines for anticipating their behavior, are not well described in the literature. Because of their content of fine particles, these materials may behave as if they initially have appreciable cohesion and moderate to low permeability. They may exhibit significant standup time, and require tunnel internal fluid pressure (compressed air or slurry pressure) less than the full external water head. It is important to be able to estimate the behavior of these soils when planning construction methods. For example, if the external water pressure is 140 kPa (20 psi), but soil stability at the tunnel face can be achieved as a compressed air pressure of 80 kPa (12 psi), a large cost savings may result.

Jan 1, 1987

By J. P. Savely

This paper describes the development of a trim blast design to improve the stability of a final pit wall. Description is given of the effects of rock characteristics, rock type, and pit plans on the blast design. Currently, six benches have been mined with trim blasting. A more stable final wall has resulted and the successful program has reduced mining costs over an extended time period. Low-cost blast monitoring and field observation were used to determine peak particle velocity and blast damage. Using criteria developed from this relationship, trim blasts were designed and evaluated.

Jan 1, 1987

By M. B. Mirza, W. A. Sadik, B. T. Stanley

This paper presents the ventilation design for an underground testing facility in a salt medium. The under-ground workings consist of two 3.6 m-diam (12 ft-diam) watertight shafts and about 1830 m (6000 ft) of drifting. These facilities are designed to provide access for an in situ testing of a salt horizon in which a variety of hazardous and nonhazardous materials could be temporarily stored or permanently deposited. The ventilation system includes a design basis for gassy mine conditions and provides for the option of bulk air cooling and heating.

Jan 1, 1987

By Richard D. Smith

The Bureau of Mines evaluated the emission control methods, including the capital investments and operating cost, necessary for further reducing lead levels in ambient air at the Glover, Herculaneum, and Buick smelter-refineries in Missouri and the East Helena, MT, smelter. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed more stringent lead in ambient air standards than those currently in effect. This report presents theoretically achievable lead emission reductions and estimated capital and operating costs. Lead emission inventories theoretically can be reduced from 1985 levels by 2,421 lb/d at the three Missouri operations by containing and filtering fugitive emissions within structural enclosures and baghouses. The aggregated capital and operating costs in 1986 dollars using conventional environmental and workplace technologies are estimated to be $250,014,100 and $18,507,800, respectively. Estimated total incremental cost is $0.063/lb as refined lead. Additional regulatory costs attributable to Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSKA), U.S. Department of Labor, workplace standards are included since proposed environmental controls may otherwise degrade workplace conditions. Continuous drossing is evaluated as an alternative to conventional OSHA controls. Substituting continuous drossing for conventional work- place technology results in an estimated aggregated capital and operating costs of $258,344,800 and $15,719,600, respectively. Estimated total incremental cost is $0.062/1b as refined lead. For comparison, the average open market price of refined lead during the first quarter of 1986 was $0.184/lb.

Jan 1, 1987

An investigation into the stability of large open stopes at Premier diamond mine, Culinan, South Africa, is described. The open stopes are located in a weak kimberlite orebody, directly underneath a 75 m-thick sill of gabbro. Two and three-dimensional stress analyses were carried out in a back-analysis of the stresses and failure around the first open stope created under the sill. The results were used in the prediction of the future stability of the planned open stopes, intervening pillars, and sill.

Jan 1, 1987

By G. Barbery

The models for particle composition prediction that have been put forward are limited to simple textures and lead to an independance of grade with respect to particle size in broken ore. A presentation is made of a modification in texture description; binary textures, in which each subeonstituent has its own breakage characteristics are introduced. The calibration of the textural model can be made using heavy liquid separation results. The application to the case of coal is presented. Coal washability data present spe¬cial difficulty due to the distribution in the specific gravity of coal, which must be taken into account. Coal s.g. distribution is taken as a generalized exponential distribution. Model calibration is then possible and is shown to be in good agreement with experimental data.

Jan 1, 1987

By E. M. Frizzell

In an effort to economically and efficiently enhance the erosion control aspects of present surface coal mine reclamation practices, the US Bureau of Mines has recently completed a two-phase research program wherein irrigation strategies and equipment developed under the first phase were field tested on three surface coal mine sites. The fundamental basis for the use of irrigation as a reclamation tool is to provide the plant moisture requirements as a supplement to prevailing natural precipitation, and thereby support the natural growth of drought-hardy native vegetation. Portable solid-set irrigation equipment and several irrigation strategies were tested on large 6-ha (15-acre) sites in Montana, Wyoming, and New Mexico. Results of these tests will be presented which include daily irrigations, precipitation levels, soil moistures, climatic data, and density cover and biomass of the native plants.

Jan 1, 1987

By Jerry E. Olson

In 1986, at the request of the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Bureau of Mines studied part of the 20,071-acre South Fork Wilderness Study Area (OR-005-033) and part of the 8,791-acre Sand Hollow Wilderness Study Area (OR-005-034) in order to evaluate their identified mineral resources. The study areas are located in Crook County, OR, about 58 air miles east from Bend. The areas studied are underlain by Tertiary- and Quaternary-age volcanic and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks. No mineral resources were identified in or adjacent to the study area. Except for common opal and agate occurrences along the northern boundary of the study areas, no mines, prospects, or mineralized zones occur within the study areas. Bentonite is periodically mined less than 1 mi southwest of the Sand Hollow study area boundary. Neither of the study areas has geothermal leases, but both areas are under lease for oil and gas.

Jan 1, 1987

By Jeffrey A. Holcomb

INTRODUCTION The passage of Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA/Superfund) as well as the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state laws, have placed added regulatory pressures on the mining industry. These laws which focus on the regulation of hazardous substances and wastes for the protection of the public health and welfare and the environment, present the potential for tremendous financial impacts and liabilities on existing mine operators and owners and/or potential mine operators/owners. This paper takes a brief look at these laws and presents an environmental audit procedure to identify environmental liabilities prior to mine land transactions. The environmental audit approach presented is an overview of the procedures that could be used to document, evaluate and inventory existing and/or potential environmental concerns. This audit procedure can be applied to developed or undeveloped properties and at active or inactive mining sites. REGULATORY OVERVIEW Mining environmental liabilities have been addressed in RCRA, Superfund, the Clean Air Act (CAA) and the Clean Water Act (CWA). Even though the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has determined that mining wastes will be treated as solid wastes under RCRA and not as hazardous wastes, these wastes could still bring about a great deal of financial liability under Superfund. The catch is if the mine wastes generated contain hazardous substances such as the heavy metals arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, zinc and others as well as cyanide. Thus, it is not only important for a mine operator/owner or a potential mine operator/owner to know if the mine wastes generated are hazardous, but it is important to know if the wastes contain hazardous substances. Following is a brief overview of RCRA and Superfund and their potential implications. RCRA RCRA, which provides the basis for the regulation of solid and hazardous wastes, is applicable to active mining and milling sites. Within RCRA the definition of a hazardous waste is provided. This definition applies to owners and operators of mining and milling sites if the operator has stored, disposed or treated hazardous wastes on-site. If this is the case and if strict process control and waste management activities are not adhered to, environmental liabilities may be associated with the site. Superfund The 1980 Superfund law can be applicable to inactive mining sites or to inactive sections of an active facility. The provisions of Superfund call for the regulation of hazardous wastes and hazardous sub- stances disposal and release not only by the existing owner, but also for any previous owner. This concept of joint and several liability means that one party, as among many, can be held totally responsible for the costs of hazardous waste cleanup (Haller, 1987). Furthermore, liabilities under Superfund have also been applied back to past acts; thus, several mining properties, active or inactive prior to the 1980 Superfund law, are at risk of being placed on the EPA's National Priority List (NPL) for cleanup. Last years amendments to Superfund, known as the Superfund Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), provided some significant developments for the mining industry. The major requirement of the amendments as it pertains to owners or operators of mining sites is that the EPA must revise its present Hazard Ranking System (HRS). This is important be- cause in most cases the primary reason for several mining sites having been included on the NPL was due to the large volume of wastes generated. As is typical at most mining sites, large volumes of low toxicity wastes are generated and the current HRS model prejudices against this. It should be noted that this provision only applies to sites that are not already on the NPL or have not been proposed for inclusion on the list.

Jan 1, 1987

By P. K. Kaiser

A rational approach for the design of fully grouted bolts in underground excavations is presented. An analytical model involving elasto-plastic concepts and the mechanics of bolt/ground interaction was developed and tested by comparison with laboratory tests and field measurements. The theory elucidates the influence of shear stress distribution, bolt pattern and geometry on tunnel convergence. Laboratory simulation has provided convincing evidence to support the theoretical predictions. A dimensionless bolt efficiency parameter is introduced as a design tool that relates the reduction of tunnel convergence to the bolt length and density. Its application in practice is highlighted by the analysis of one case history.

Jan 1, 1987

The Fiji islands are the world's most ac- cessible Cenozoic remnant arc. They provide occasional subaerial exposures of an arc frag- ment some 750 km long and 80 km wide, or about the size of the NE Japan volcanic arc. The fragment is one part of the former Vitiaz Arc which once connected Fiji to Vanuatu and Tonga. The Fijian portion has the most completely stu- died Tertiary section which contains a history of arc volcanism from the late Eocene to late Miocene (the Early and Mature Arc stages), a rich diversity of subsequent magmatic responses to the most recent episode of arc rifting (Ear- ly Rifting stage), and an example of transition from arc to intraplate volcanism as this rift- ing proceeded (Late Rifting stage). The arc fragment is surrounded by younger backarc ba- sins. The chemical composition of magmas in both the arc and backarc changed with time, but in opposite directions. In the arc, magmas be- came enriched in sialic components from the Early Arc to Early Rifting stages, whereas in the basins the magmas became more similar to mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORBs) with time. In southwest Fiji, the oldest backarc basin has subducted obliquely beneath the remnant arc du- ring the last 3 Ma, resulting in chemically ex- otic calcalkaline volcanism. During the last decade over 150 radiome- tric age measurements and 650 rock analyses, many with trace element and isotopic measure- ments, have been obtained for samples from Fi- ji, Tonga, and the surrounding seafloor (Figs. 1 and 2). These data are summarized, drawing from the publications of Colley and Hindle (1984), Gill et al. (1984), Hawkins and Melchi- or (1985), Kroencke (1984), Malahoff et al. (1984), Scholl et al. (1985) and Whelan et al. (1985), from the specific research papers refe- renced therein, and from the half dozen or so manuscripts currently in preparation by these people and others.

Jan 1, 1987

Real economic growth for the year will most likely exceed the Administration's estimate of 3.2%, up from 2.9% in 1986, unless consumers change their spending patterns more than expected as a result of the October stock market decline. The economy grew at a real annual rate of 3.7% in the first three quarters of the year, Analysts agree that the stock market decline will slow economic growth-- most have lowered their growth expectations for 1988 by about 1%; but few would argue that the economy will slow significantly in the fourth quarter of 1987. [ ] During this economic recovery, personal consumption expenditures provided the main impetus for growth and a deeping trade deficit, the main hindrance to growth. In 1987, however, personal consumption expenditures grew at a lower rate than the overall economy. Mush of the economic growth resulted from a reduced trade deficit and growing investment by business in equipment to improve productivity and to meet the domestic and foreign demand for products. The declining value of the dollar resulted in a better competitive position for U.S. goods but also contributed to a rising rate of inflation as imports rose in price. Inflation, as measured by the fixed-weighted index for gross national product, was still far below the rates in the early 1980k, however. More than 2 million jobs were created during the year, predominantly in the service sectors of the economy, and the monthly unemployment rate in September fell to the lowest level in a decade. Then, after 13 months of decline, the unemployment rate edged up 0.1 percentage point to 5.9% in October.

Jan 1, 1987

By S. Abe

An extensive study has been carried out to determine the true cause of floating slimes precipitation which sometimes occurs and badly affects the quality of copper cathodes. Soluhilities of floating slime compounds systematically measured for the ternary system As-Sb-Ri added solely or in combination with conventional copper electrolyte (63°C) and bench scale electrorefining experiments done by varying electrolyte composition, have shown conclusively that the level of Sb(V) ions plays a substantial role in the precipitation mechanism. It was, therefore, speculated that controlling the level of the less soluble S b ( V ) ions below a certain critical level should result in a complete elimination of the undesirable precipitation. This can be easily achieved, for instance, by the addition of a reducing agent such as SO2 gas and the simultaneous employment of a certain type of cheating agent that effectively removes excessive Sb and Bi from the contaminated electrolyte. Long-term pilot testing conducted in line with the above speculation has confirmed the SO2/chelating resin scheme to be industrially very attractive and feasible.

Jan 1, 1987

By J. G. Price

"The paper reviews state-of-the art welding processes and consumables for structural and pressure equipment applications in offshore environments, particularly the Arctic. Optimum selection of consumables will be discussed with regard to the facility to meet tentative toughness requirements in weldments. Finally, the development of welding procedure specifications will be considered in relation to the prevention of hot or cold cracking and lamellar tearing.Welding RequirementsGeneralThe exploitation of Canadian frontier oil and gas reserves will require a fleet of various types of offshore structures. These will include fixed jacket types and semi-submersibles for the East Coast with huge man-made islands and icebreakers for the Arctic regions. Both these regions will also require supply and drill ships plus subsea pipelines and cargo tankers for transportation. Clearly the welding of these items will plays large part in the over-all integrity and safety of exploration and production operations.The required development in structural steels and pressure vessel steels, for current and future offshore structures, to improve properties, particularly toughness for lower temperature service, has also prompted welding researchers to develop process and consumable combinations to match the parent plate specifications. This development has had to consider particular aspects of weldability such as a low susceptibility to cold cracking and preventing low HAZ toughness. Current research has centred on attempts to increase HAZ toughness with higher heat input welding of newly developed structural steels.The installation of Arctic region pipelines has provided a sound base for future, more complex fabrications in the most severe service temperatures in the Canadian frontier although few of the installations have been designed to the lowest possible exposed temperature of -62°C."

Jan 1, 1987

By John T. Bartlett

With more stringent environmental and economic constraints being placed on mining operations, it has become necessary to optimize each process to minimize energy and raw material consumption and reduce waste discharge. In most cases, detailed process analysis is required to detect inefficiencies and provide alternative solutions for process improvement. HETSIM, a microcomputer process modeling and simulation system, is routinely used to analyze communition, hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and coal preparation processes. The process modeling techniques used in METSIM, including process control simulation, will be presented and illustrated using actual plant processes.

Jan 1, 1987