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By John Nagy

Dust explosion data obtained in laboratory studies by the Bureau of Mines are presented for activated carbon, asphalt, charcoal, carbon black, coal, coke, gilsonite, graphite, lignite, miscellaneous carbons, pitch, tunnel dust, and mixtures of these materials with other ingredients. The explosion hazard is shown to increase as the volatile content of the dusts increases.

Jan 1, 1965

Minerals are vital to any industrialized civilization. Annually, the United States uses more than 4 billion tons of new mineral materials, or about 40,000 pounds per person-about half being mineral fuels and the other half being metals and nonmetallics. Stable and economic domestic mining, mineral, metal, and mineral reclamation industries are essential to the economy. The value of United States energy and processed materials of mineral origin exceds $200 billion annually. Although a number of minerals are imported, especially some designated as "strategic and critical," most U.S. mineral supplies are derived from the domestic mines and processing facilities that you will be seeing, reading about, and visiting as you use this visitor guide. We hope you enjoy your experiences. This pamphlet, a guide to mining and mineral operations that may be observed or visited and some other points of interest relating to minerals, is intended to aid tourists and students who are interested in mining. Some may wish to study our Nation's romantic past; others may plan to enter the minerals industry as a career; still others may have a primary interest in conservation practices. The pamphlet is also intended to aid State and local officials, Chambers of Commerce, and mining firms in answering some of the many questions of tourists and students.

Jan 1, 1976

By T. E. Howard

The western phosphate field, comprising parts of Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and Utah, contains one of the world's largest known reserves of phosphate rock. Although phosphate-rock deposits of good-grade have been known since before the turn of the century and production has been recorded since 1906, real development of this important field did not begin until immediately after World War II. Since then fertilizer-manufacturing facilities using western phosphate rock have been expanded, and three electric-furnace plants for producing elemental phosphorus have been installed, resulting in a rise in mine production from 323,955 long tons2/ in 1945 to 1,653,916 long tons3/ in 1953. Interest in the field is increasing, and it is reasonable to expect that the western phosphate industry will continue to expand. Before 1945 all western production was from underground mines. In that year the first strip mine in the field was started near Montpelier, Idaho,~ and in sub-sequent years a number of other open-pit mines were opened in southeast Idaho and western Wyoming. At present the major part of the production comes from surface mines. Underground mining has continued, and new underground mines have been opened in the field, but recent exploration by operating companies has been aimed primarily at developing additional deposits suitable for low-cost surface mining. Preliminary reserve estimates by the Federal Geological Survey5/ indicate that only a very small part of the total resource may be recovered by surface methods and that the industry eventually must depend largely on underground mining. Because one function of the Bureau of Mines is promoting the conservation and development of the Nation's mineral resources, it is appropriate that research be conducted to develop low-cost maximum-recovery underground mining methods applicable to western phosphate-rock deposits.

Jan 1, 1956

By H. B. Hill

The Lake Creek gas-condensate field, Montgomery County, Tex., Was discovered early in 1941 by the Superior Oil Co. The field, shown in figure 1, is approximately 37 miles northwest of Houston, Tex., about 11 miles north of the Tomball, and 10 miles west of the Conroe oil fields. The field is on the downthrown side of a pronounced fault zone, and the general structure is anticlinal, with the long axis trending northeast and southwest. Production is obtained from multiple sandstone reservoirs in the Wilcox group of Eocene age between the approximate depths of 8,820 and 11,840 feet below the surface of the ground.

Jan 1, 1948

By N. A. Eilertsen

Among the numerous Low-grade manganese deposits in eastern Aroostook County, Maine, the Dudley deposit near Mapleton in the northern district is one of the few known to contain an appreciable tonnage averaging above 10 percent manganese. The ore body, consisting of stratified manganiferous hematitic shale, is over 5,000 feet long and ranges in width from 30 to 175 feet. The deposit was extensively explored during 1942-44 by the Manganese Ore Co., a subsidiary of M. A. Hanna Co. of Cleveland, Ohio. Data obtained from this work were made available to the State and Federal Geological Surveys for estimating ore reserves. An estimate by the Maine Geological Survey, using a 10-percent manganese cutoff and to a depth of 200 feet, shows 609,000 long tons of manganese metal in material averaging 12.6 percent manganese. By lowering the cutoff limit to 5 percent manganese, the estimate was increased to 919,000 long tons of metallic manga¬nese in material averaging, 10.4 percent manganese,

Jan 1, 1957

By Franklin H. Persse

Domestic bismuth supply was projected from production figures for the ores in which it occurs--copper, lead, zinc, and tungsten. Published and unpublished data concerning host ores were examined to determine bismuth reserves and resources, and mine production. Potential recoverable bismuth occurring with reserves and resources of copper, lead, and zinc was estimated to be 36.3 million pounds. A bismuth availability diagram was developed from quantity estimates and ratios of production cost to value for these host ores. Additional recoverable bismuth occurring with domestic tungsten reserves was estimated to be 1.5 million pounds. Domestic byproduct production of bismuth will approximate 1.3 million pounds annually by 1980. This quantity will provide about 37 percent of the 3.5-million-pound estimated requirement for that year. Known world supply of bismuth appears to be sufficient for world demand to the end of this century. The study indicates that bismuth reserves and potential resources in the rest of the world have not been adequately reported.

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert H. Ridgway

This circular outlines salient facts regarding the pyrites industry of the United States and the world. It is founded chiefly upon published information available in the literature of the subject. The United States Bureau of Mines has in its files additional and more detailed data upon many of the subjects presented very briefly here, and will endeavor to assist the mineral industries and the public by giving further information in response to individual inquiries. The bureau will welcome comments, criticisms, and contribu- tions of data that may assist in making later editions of this circular of information more accurate, or may aid in developing more fully the files pertaining to pyrites.

Sep 1, 1931

By D. A. Elkins

This report is the second of a series of three that will evaluate, in order, the metallothermic, carbothermic, and electrolytic methods of magnesium production. The historical development of the carbothermic process is outlined. Production costs varying from 38.9 to 21.8 cents per pound of magnesium are estimated for different versions of the process. Additional suggested process modifications are listed. The technical and economic potential of the different versions are compared. Areas deemed most promising for future research on the process are delineated.

Jan 1, 1967

By A. J. Martin

The Tri-State, or Joplin, zinc and lead mining district in south- western Missouri and adjoining, parts of Kansas and Oklahoma is one of the great mining districts of the world. It is in flat-lying or gently rolling agricultural country near industrial centers and coal, oil, and gas fields. The nearly horizontally, lying bedded rocks in which the ore bodies are found were originally limestone but are now largely chert containing minor percent- ages of dolomite and other minerals. The ore occurs in nearly vertical fis- sure zones, large and small, and in blanket (sheet-ground) deposits. The mining depth ranges from surface diggings to $50 feet. The average tenor of the ore mined, in recent years is much lower than that of ore produced in other large zinc and lead districts of the United States. Mining and mill- ing costs are low because of the shallowness of mining, amenability of ores to concentration, efficiency resulting from long experience of management and labor, and other factors. The operators comprise many small and medium-size producing companies and partnerships, as well as individuals and a few larger producers. About 7,000 men are employed in the mines and mills during normal industrial activity. The concentrates produced are sold f.o.b. the mill bins to local representatives of smelting companies at prices quoted on the Joplin market. The productive life of the district began with the discovery of lead near Joplin in 1848, but output was not large until after mining for zinc began near Granby in 1871. In most of the intervening years through 1945 the district produced more zinc than any other field, and it generally ranked third or fourth in the United States in lead production. Figures compiled from sources given later in this paper show a total output for the district from the beginning through 1945 of 20,755,020 tons of zinc concentrates and 3,334,057 tons of lead concentrates valued altogether at $1,110,058,581 in the mill bins. The output, in terms of recoverable metals, was 10,609,408 tons of zinc and 2,529,121 tons of lead, valued in all, at the average yearly market prices of the metals, at $1,691,282,419. During the 39 years (1907-1945) for which complete figures are available, the annual output of the district fluctuated from 23 to 66 percent of the total United States mine output of zinc and from 5 to 18 percent of the total lead; the averages for the period were 40 percent for zinc and 11 percent for lead. peak yearly production was attained in 1926, with an output of 423,800 tons of recoverable zinc and 102;117 tons of lead. Since that yoar the production rate has trended downward, accentuated at first by the depression in the thirties and later ameliorated somewhat under the stimulus of heavy demand and higher metal prices during World War II; the output in 1945 was 139,274 tons of recovorablo zinc and 23,556 tons of load. The above figures show the groat contribution made by the Tri-State district in the past toward the country's supplies of primary zinc and lead, cspecially zinc. However, the district's production is expected to decline both in quantity and in proportion of total United States mine output unless important discoveries are made. Ore exposed in mine workings and extensive exploratory drilling done in recent years within and without the productive The

Nov 1, 1946

By D. W. Frommer

Composite samples of nonmagnetic taconite from the western Mesabi range were evaluated by reductive roasting, fine grinding, and magnetic separation to determine potential sources of concentratable material. Although large tonnages of nonmagnetic taconite are known to occur in the western Mesabi district, these materials are not as yet a commercial source of iron ore. The technique employed permits the evaluation of individual composites and blocks of composites in terms of responsiveness to a process of potential commercial significance. The 159 composites, from open-pit mines located between Grand Rapids and Chisholm, Minn., were evaluated in the following sequence: 1. Minus 8-mesh material was roasted at 500° C. in hydrogen. 2. The roasted are was ground to one or more sizes in the minus 100-to minus 400-mesh range. 3. The roasted ground ore was magnetically separated in a Davis tube. 4. Composites were classified according to degree of grinding required to produce minimal concentrates. (Minimal concentrates are herein defined as those containing less than 10 percent silica, and responsive composites as those yielding minimal concentrates.)

Jan 1, 1962

By Hillary W. St. Clair

The reduction zone of the iron blast furnace is represented by a mathematical model of the chemical reactions and heat transfer that occurs between gas and solids during the deoxidation of iron oxide. The model consists of a set of equations and an algorithm whereby the equations may be solved to give the temperature and composition of gas and solids at any position in the reaction zone and at any time after a specified initial state. The model is applied to the special case in which ferric oxide is reduced by graphitic carbon and carbon monoxide produced by burning carbon in dry air. The rate of reduction, carbon consumption and maximum temperature are shown as functions of the temperature and rate of flow of the incoming reducing gas and external heat loss. The model of the reduction zone is the essential part of a general mathematical model for simulation of the iron blast furnace. The simulation model will serve as a research tool to be used in conjunction with an experimental or operating furnace. After the simulation model has been correlated with the real furnace, it is proposed that further experimentation be done mostly with the model. The real furnace will then be operated primarily to test and confirm the model.

Jan 1, 1967

By J. H. Soulé

"The Copper King copper-gold-silver deposit was discovered about 1880. Various individuals and companies have been interested in the deposit and considerable work has been done, although production, if any, has been small. The deposit is located in the western part of Laramie County Wyo., and is favorably nituated with respect to rail and truck transportation and high-tension power facilities.Mild summers and cold winters characterize the climate. Precipitation averages between 16 and 17 inches annually, with considerable snowfall in the winter. Permanent streams are small and most available water in being stored for use by Cheyenne, Wyo. Range grasses comprise the bulk of the vegetation, with small treed and shrubs common in the most rugged areas.The deposits lie upon land owned by Wyoming, now leased by a group of Wyoming and Colorado businessman constituting the Copper King Mining Co.Primary copper-gold mineralization seems largely confined to an equigranular, relatively fine grained gneiss that is part of a pre-Cambrian complex of metamorphic rocks ranging from schists to pegmatites. The copper minerals are oxidized to a depth of from 100 to 150 feet, with the occasional occurrence of secondary minerals at greater depths. The copper minerals chalcopyrite, malachite, chalcocite, bornite, cuprite(?), and some native copper were observed in Le deposit.In addition to the 4,030 feet of diamond-core drilling in 11 holes done on the deposit by private companies, the Bureau of Mines drilled 3 holes for a total of 2,630 feet. The sample results of this drilling plus available data from previous drilling and sampling are appended to this report."

Jun 1, 1955

By R. V. Higgins

This paper describes a method and a computer program for calculating shape factors and areas of channels that turn more than 90° and conduct fluids into the backs of wells. The program represents an improvement over a previous Bureau of Mines investigation by using a 4-point Lagrange interpolation equation instead of a 3-point and by summing areas of trapezoids with either x altitudes or y altitudes. Some of the techniques reported in this paper can also be used to compute the areas between contours and the lengths of lines that turn more than 90°.

Jan 1, 1968

By V. A. Danielson

The Bureau of Mines studied waste disposal methods a1 a coal mine in Kentucky and another in Alabama to develop cost estimates, to provide better knowledge of current practices, and to guide consideration of alternate disposal methods. Costs of the existing waste disposal systems at each mine were estimated using present-day costs of equipment and labor. Costs of waste disposal systems using alternate equipment were also estimated. Although total disposal costs were essentially the same for both operations, reclamation costs will differ because of different reclamation practices.

Jan 1, 1969

The value of raw nonfuel mineral materials production totaled an estimated $19.7 billion in 1978. The record 1978 value exceeded by 13 percent the 1977 value of $17.5 billion. This raw mineral output was the basis for approximately $200 billion worth of processed materials of mineral origin. Output of both metals and nonmetals increased about $1 billion each, above comparable figures for 1977. Of the 22 metals produced quantitative output of 11 increased and the value of 13 increased. Among the 48 nonmetallic commodities produced, the quantities for 35 increased, and the values for 40 increased.

Jan 1, 1979

By David R. Jessey

This volume contains the detailed mine site reports written by the WAPORA, Inc. and KETRON, Inc. staffs. It is a companion Appendix Volume to Control of Water Pollution from Surface Mining Operations. Copies of this report are maintained on Open File at the U.S. Bureau of Mines Research Center, Spokane, Washington.

Jan 1, 1981

By S. H. Ash

NO MORE important question has come before the coal-mining industry in many places, especially in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, than prevention of stream pollution by mine drainage. Available information on acid mine drainage in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania indicates that a pollution problem must be solved in any program of anthracite mine drainage. The major problem concerns satisfactory disposal of the daily average mine-water discharge of 327,000 gallons per minute (g. p. m.), or 472 million gallons per day (g. p. d.), containing a free-acid load of 431 tons or a total acid load of 934 tons a clay as H2S04. This report indicates the scope of the problem and gives some suggestions concerning its solution.

Jan 1, 1951

By Lyman Moore

This Bureau of Mines report describes 2nd evaluates iron ore resources in California and Nevada and analyzes the California and Japanese iron ore markets in which these resources will be used. The competitive position of California-Nevada ores, in these markets, was estimated by comparing regional iron ore prices, production costs, and transportation costs with those of foreign suppliers. Resources were determined to be sufficient to produce the equivalent of 585 million tons of 64-percent iron pellets at a price of less than $15 per ton delivered at California ports. Much higher tonnage could be produced at higher prices. Iron ore requirement of the California iron and steel industry will increase to an estimated 15.9 million tons by the year 2000. A study of the iron ore production potential of California-Nevada deposits and of out-of- State sources indicated that this ore requirement can be supplied most economically by California-Nevada ores. Iron ore import requirements of the Japanese iron and steel industry will increase to an estimated 150.0 million tons by the year 2000. A study of price trends in this market indicated that very little California-Nevada iron ore will be sold in Japan after 1973 when existing sales contracts expire. Iron ore-exports might be economically possible if ore could be transported from California to Japan at ballast rates as backhaul on existing petroleum shipping.

Jan 1, 1971

By William Cochran

The Bureau of Mines investigated mine subsidence caused by recent underground mining, estimated the extent of damages, and formulated a procedure for evaluating subsidence costs. On the basis of the quantity of material removed from beneath the surface, bituminous coal mining currently causes more extensive subsidence problems than mining of other minerals; costs are highest in areas such as western Pennsylvania where urban and suburban development and related types of land use conflict with mineral recovery. The Bureau of Mines estimated subsidence costs, including surface damages and control costs, for a 12-county area in western Pennsylvania for 1968. Total surface damages attributable to the underground production of bituminous coal in the 1-year period were $295,000; in addition, 12.4 million tons of coal, valued at $4.3 million, was left in place to minimize potential surface damage. Of the total subsidence cost ($4.6 million), $2.7 million was classified as external or social costs, not reflected in the market value of bituminous coal; this averaged $0.05 per ton of production, or slightly less than 1 percent of the market value.

Jan 1, 1971

By R. L. Rough

The Bureau of Mines analyzed rotary-coring-operations data to compare mud and air as coring mediums, and to compare core recoveries, penetration rates, and cost data for the respective mediums as part of an investigation of the susceptibility to secondary-recovery techniques of petroleum reservoirs in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. This report describes the rotary-diamond coring equipment and operations employed while coring 20 wells--10 cored using mud, and 10 cored using air. Data relevant to the draw works, rotary-table power, drill pipe, drill collars, core barrel, core head, mud pumps, or air compressors are tabulated. Average bit weight and rotary speed, core recovery, and penetration rates are listed for each formation cored. In general, core recoveries were better from the mud-cored wells, whereas penetration rates were faster for the air-cored wells. Coring costs were about the same for single-formation wells cored with either mud or air; however, costs increased considerably when multiple-formation wells were cored with air.

Jan 1, 1969