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By R. A. Bosch, F. V. Lenel, G. S. Ansell

RECENTLY, Ansell and aenel' proposed a dislocation model to account for the yielding behavior of dispersion-strengthened alloys. The criterion for yielding used in this model was that yielding occurs when the shear stress due to arrays of piled-up dislocations fractures or plastically deforms the dispersed second-phase particles. Calculations based on this model predict that the yield strength, uysof a dispersion-strengthened alloy containing particles whose geometry permits them to be considered as straight, i.e. not curved, barriers to dislocations follows the relation where and are the shear moduli of the matrix and dispersed phase respectively, b is the Burger vector of a dislocation in the matrix, A is the mean free path between dispersed phase particles and C is a constant. This yield stress, ys, is closely approximated in polycrystalline alloys by the proportional limit. The offset yield stress, uoy, is the yield stress, uys, plus the increase of stress due to strain hardening in the offset strain increment. Previous investigation1 has shown that Eq. [I] describes the yielding behavior of several different dispersion-strengthened alloys as a function of the mean free path between dispersed phase particles at a constant temperature. The purpose of this investigation was to investigate the temperature dependence of the yielding behavior of dispersion-strengthened alloys. The alloys studied, MD2100 and MD5100, are SAP-type alloys containing flake shaped aluminum oxide particles dispersed in a matrix of commercial purity aluminum. The proportional limit and 0.2 pct offset stress of both of these alloys were determined as a function of temperature over the temperature range from -190" to 500 C. All tests were conducted on an Instron tensile testing machine. Stress was measured by means of the Instron load cell. Strain was measured by means of SR-4 strain gages attached to the tensile specimens. Stress sensitivity was 80 psi. Strain sensitivity was 2 x 10F Fig. 1 shows the values received for the proportional limit and 0.2 pct offset yield stress plotted as a function of homologous temperature for both the MD2100 and MD5100 alloys. Inspection of Eq. [I] shows that of the terms which determine the theoretically predicted yield stress, uy,, only the shear moduli have an appreciable temperature dependence. From Eq. [I] the yield stress at any temperature T, UT, may be predicted from the yield stress at any arbitrary reference temperature, in this case 25 OC, u25, by the relation where the subscripts T and 25 refer to the values of the property at test temperature and at 25"C, respectively. The temperature dependence of the yield stress predicted by Eq. 121, based on the observed value for the proportional limit at 25OC, is also shown in Fig. 1. In evaluating Eq. [2] the following data was used. The values for the shear modulus of

Jan 1, 1962

By A. M. Keenan, R. H. Carpenter

Geologic faults have always been a plague to the mining industry, and have often reduced a mining venture from a profitable to a marginal operation, and even at times have forced companies to liquidation or bankruptcy. The use of geology as an economic tool in coal mining is not generally recognized, particularly in coal deposits which are horizontal or essentially flat-lying, in which faulting might not be prevalent. However in pitching coal seams, the existence of faults is considered an inherent challenge, as the inclination of the seam or seams per se, is a product of geologic disturbance. The problems of faults are a constant challenge to the management of the Thompson Creek Coal and Coke Corp. in their operations in Pitkin County, Colorado, where high grade medium volatile coking coal is mined. The background for this paper has been provided by the experiences of these operations, in overcoming the effects of faults in mining, and resolving the fault structures. The properties of the Thompson Creek Coal and Coke Corp. are located in central Colorado, 13 miles southwest of Carbondale, Colorado, a tow] on the main highway between Glenwood Springs and Aspen, Fig. 1. The elevation at the mine portals is approximately 8000 feet: there is a relief of some 2.000 feet to the adjacent ridges rising away from the [nine portals. 'The entire present production of these properties totaling 180.000 tons of clean coal per year is trucked to the railhead at Carbondale, Colorado, from whence it is shipped to the Geneva Steel Plant at Provo, Utah. The properties were initially opened in September 1952. A total of 125 men are currently employed with the production conting from the Number 1 and 3 Mines, and development workings of the Number 2 and 5 Mines respectively. While the No. 2 Vine was opened in 1953 prior to No, 3 Mine, the encountering of faults without sufficient development work accomplished to sustain production, necessitated the diversion of manpower to the other [nines for economic considerations. GEOLOGY '1-he productive coal seams occur in the Mesaverde formation of Late Cretaceous age which outcrop along the eastern edge of the Piance Creek Basin from the Grand Hogback, a part of the southwestern flank of the White River Uplift north of Glenwood Springs, southward through the 'Thompson Creek area and the

Jan 1, 1961

By E. S. Machlin

THE function of this paper is to present certain results based on the fact that the strain energy arising from the solution of out-of-size solute atoms into the solid matrix is free energy and not internal energy, and that this strain energy is almost wholly shear strain energy as Zener1 pointed out. One natural consequence of this fact is an expression for the excess entropy of mixing due to the strain energy. Also, a derivation of the integral molar free energy of mixing partitioned to strain energy will be made using the model of Lawson2 and thermodynamics. This derivation has the advantage of showing in a simple way the assumptions involved in Lawson's treatment. The excess entropy of mixing partitioned to strain energy can be derived in two ways. The first way makes use of the fact that the strain energy is almost wholly in the form of shear strain energy. In this case, as Zener1 pointed out, the change in entropy due to the addition of shear strain energy is to a first approximation given by ?S/?? p,T = - ?lnµ/?T p,? Hence, the excess entropy of mixing partitioned to strain energy will be given by Sx ? = ?S/?? p,T Gx ? = - ?lnµ/?T p,? Gx ? where, Gx ? is the relative integral molar free en- ergy partitioned to strain energy; S is the entropy; is the shear strain energy; µ is the shear modulus; T is the absolute temperature; p is the pressure; and ? is the shear strain. Zener,1 as well as others, has pointed out that the shear strain energy stored in a compressible isotropic solid due to the insertion of an off-size incompres-sible sphere into a spherical hole in the solid, is approximately given by 2/3 µ/O (O°I - O)2 where a is the volume of spherical hole and no , is the volume of sphere. If we now consider the introduction of one mol of such spheres into an infinite volume of solid, then the relative partial molar free energy excess due to strain energy alone is GM ? = 2/3 µ/v (v ° 1 - v)2 where v is the molar volume of solvent and v°1, is the molar volume of pure solute type 1. Let us consider that these spheres are the two types of atoms in a binary solution, then there will be a similar relation for solute 2. The total relative integral molar free energy excess due to strain is then, to the approximations stated above GM ? = GM ? x1 + GM2 ? x2 = 2/3 µ/v [(v ° 1 - v)2 x1 + (v ° 1 - v)2 x2]. Lawson's relation for the strain energy can be de-

Jan 1, 1955

By John F. McElhiney, Hosseim Kazemi

This chapter is a review of fluid flow and mass trans- port in fractured rocks. The topics include: single-phase and multiple-phase flow theory, formation productivity or injectivity improvement by artificial fracturing, and mass transport associated with fracture acidizing. Possible extension and application of such ideas to in situ mining in fractured rocks are presented.

Jan 1, 1974

By GEORGE D. RAMSAY

WHEN the Ironton blast furnace of the Columbia Steel , Co. was first put into operation the iron ore was mined frol11 the deposit near Iron Springs, Utah. This is principally a hematite with 12 to 20 per cent of magnetite finely disseminated throughout the ore. It varies from a fairly soft broken rock structure to that which is hard and compact. In the broken form it will weigh about 150 lb. per cu. ft., and in place the density is approximately 250 lb. per cu. ft. The first ore received for the blast furnace was crushed so as to pass through approximately a 4-in. square opening screen. A typical screen test of this ore is shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1935

By James Barr

Geology and Mineralogy1 TENNESSEE phosphates are commercially divided into three varieties: Brown, blue and white. The first two only are now of commercial importance. The white phosphates of Perry county are not being mined at present owing to their pockety occurrence. The white phosphate is Fig. I.-DEPOSITS OF 75 PER CENT. BROWN PLATE ROCK UNDERLAIN BY SAND. the highest grade of the three varieties, running often more than 90 per cent. tricalcium phosphate. The brown rock is found in three varieties, grading from the dense almost vitreous gray rock, 76 to 82 per cent. tricalcium phosphate, down

Jan 9, 1914

Jan 1, 1926

By Donald J. Knight

HEAT Treatment at 1500' F of a mild steel containing 0.1 pct C, in an atmosphere which is oxidizing to both carbon and iron, results in the progressive oxidation of the metal surface with little or no change in the carbon content of the underlying metal. Further heat treatment of the scaled metal in either a neutral atmosphere or in a vacuum may or may not result in the decarburization of the metal depending upon the physical nature of the scale. It is apparent that if a continuous layer of oxide is present on the steel surface, the reaction OScale + Cmetal Cogas cannot progress since the SO formed gas would be unable to leave the oxide/metal interface. Thus, in order for the reaction to progress, the oxide must be cracked or porous. Vacuum heat treatment at 1500" F of samples with a thick continuous oxide scale showed no decarburization of the steel. However, when cracks were introduced mechanically into the scale prior to the vacuum heat treatment notable decarburization of the metal resulted and a structure as shown by Fig. 1 obtained, i.e., reduction of the crack walls to ferrite. With reference to the diagram of Fig. 2, it would appear that a mechanism of the following type takes place. Carbon atoms arriving at an oxide/metal/void interface, such as 'A', Fig. 2(a), can combine with oxygen atoms from the scale and leave the reaction site as Cogas thereby reducing the oxide to metal. On a greatly magnified scale, Fig. 2(b),this will appear as a ferrite projection along the crack wall. Carbon atoms entering this projection can react with oxygen atoms at point 'C', which is a new interface, and so on leading to a progressive growth of the ferrite along the crack wall and to the surface, Figs. 2 (c) and 1. It would appear that the only means by which thickening of the ferrite film can take place is by a diffusion of oxygen through the ferrite film to react with carbon at the newly formed ferrite/ void interface. Since the diffusion rate of carbon is reportedly much greater than that of oxygen, and since there is a low probability factor of oxygen and carbon atoms arriving simultaneously at the same site on the ferritehoid interface, there will be a tendency for more rapid lengthening than thickening of the ferrite layer, as is observed.

Jan 1, 1962

By Elmer W. Pehrson

Minerals have played a prominent role in the affairs of man and nations since time immemorial but with the advent of the industrial revolution, expanding use of the products of the mineral kingdom became synonymous with the material progress of mankind. Individuals and business groups have recognized this fact so have been aggressive in searching for and utilizing mineral resources, with notable success. Indeed, their achievements are primarily responsible for the present Machine Age. On the other hand, until recently the body politic has failed to grasp fully the essentiality of minerals although, at times, access to mineral supplies has been an important factor in the political maneuvers of nations. This chapter is concerned primarily with the broader political and economic relationships of mineral resources to the world economy, and with the internal and external actions of nations in the field of minerals. Many factors that condition the mineral economy of regions and the world as a whole, influence the internal and external affairs of individual nations. The more important of these are: 1. The nature of man's dependence on minerals. 2. The problems resulting from the unique characteristics of mineral occurrence. 3. Geopolitical concepts. 4. Minerals and world power. Actions of individual nations affecting their mineral economy seek two basic objectives : 1. Attainment and maintenance of prosperity. 2. Military security. Other objectives may be cited but on careful analysis they become integral parts or extreme phases of the two points noted above. For example, the twentieth century aggressions of the USSR, Germany, Italy, and Japan might be considered as direct bids for world power but they also can be interpreted as exaggerated or mistaken efforts toward military security and peacetime prosperity. Similarly, trade barriers, nationalization of industries, foreign exchange manipulations, taxation, monopolistic prac-

Jan 1, 1959

By Herbert K. Kutter

This paper is concerned with the physical phenomena in the fracture process of presplitting and only indirectly with the establishment of the optimum presplitting parameters. Its nature is therefore qualitative, rather than quantitative.

Jan 1, 1968

By O. U. Bradley

THE extent of losses, due to evaporation, sediment, and water, in crude oil stored in steel tanks, is a very interesting question, and particularly so at this time, when every reasonable measure should be employed to eliminate all possible losses of this important natural product. Available information on this subject is incomplete; e.g., during the development of the Cushing Field, considerable surplus oil was stored in steel tanks, but from time to time, owing to changes in weather, somelosses by evaporation and short storage room on the leases, these tanks were topped out, thus rendering inaccurate any system designed to determine the average rate of evaporation or other losses of the oil over a given period. , Furthermore, the losses, as shown by the records at the time, as a result of hasty gages, failed to take into account the temperature and gravity of the oil. Losses may be classified roughly as occurring from evaporation, presence of sediment and water, and leakage. The coefficient of expansion and contraction of crude oil, in relation to temperature conditions, is of material importance; also, the rate of evaporation is dependent upon the gravity of the oil, as the escape of the lighter hydrocarbons in fresh Cushing oil, of from 40 to 42 gravity, on a warm day is considerable, and from available records of temporary storage, it is safe to assume that a loss of 1 to 13 per cent. in volume will easily occur in light crude oil of Cushing grade over a period of. 6 months, including the summer season. The presence of sediment, water, and other impurities, in the oil will also cause, more or less deterioration in quality, particularly when the fresh production is run direct from the. gage tanks, or from the wells on the lease to steel storage, as is often the case when an oil field is being rapidly developed. The bad oil will settle to the bottom of the tanks and may be determined by thiefing and running a centrifuge test on the sample. The amount of water in the oil depends entirely on the conditions under which it is produced. Sometimes in large producing wells, with heavy gas pressure, some water may come in with the oil, particularly if the well has been drilled to the top of a water sand. Under these conditions, cut oil is often produced, which, if not settled out, is carried over into the steel tanks.

Jan 7, 1918

By R. A. L. Black

Between March and June 1962, the privilege of holding a Carnegie Corporation Fellowship enabled R. A. L. Black to travel extensively in the northeastern and western U.S. and in Canada, seeing mining schools, mining research establishments and a cross-section of the American and Canadian mining industry. Visits were paid to 12 university mining schools, 7 research establishments and 19 mining operations. The author had previously spent two months in Britain in a similar manner and eventually returned to his home in South Africa after a short period studying mining problem in Australia. Thus, although the following remarks are mainly concerned with the educational problems of mining in North America, a comparison of impressions of American and Canadian conditions could be made with impressions gained from first-hand experience of other mining centers in the English-speaking world. The conclusion was reached that the problems and conditions of mining, research and mining education are very similar in all areas visited.

Jan 4, 1963

THE Institute assembled in Packer Hall of the Lehigh University, the President, Mr. David Thomas, of Catasauqua in the chair. Professor Henry Coppée, President of the Lehigh University, made an address of welcome to the Institute, and placed at its disposal a convenient hall for purposes of meeting. Mr. Thomas tendered his resignation as President of the Institute, as advancing years prevented him from actively participating in its meetings. The Institute declined to accept the resignation, and, on the assurance that active duties would not be expected of him, Mr. Thomas was induced to withdraw it. Invitations were received from Mr. B. C. Webster, President of the Lehigh Zinc Company, to visit the mines and works of the company; from Mr. Charles Brodhead, to visit the Chapman Slate Quarries; and from the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, to visit their works at Summit Hill and Mauch Chunk and the Nesquehoning Tunnel. The Council reported the names of persons already elected in the two classes of members and associates. The following resolutions were passed : Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed, who shall take into consideration the printing and publishing of papers originating with the Institute, and that a uniform system as regards size and execution be adopted. The committee appointed consisted of Messrs. R. W. Raymond, E. B. Coxe, and the Secretary. Resolved, That the Council design and prepare a seal for the Institute at the earliest practicable time. Resolved, That a committee of six, with power to add to its numbers, be appointed to examine into the question of the more economical production of iron in this country. The committee appointed consisted of Messrs. G. W. Maynard,

By Gieskieng, D. H.

Published tables of jaw crusher capacities are compiled for the most part from field performance data, interspersed with interpolations, extrapolations, various safety factors, and other modifications. Such a table attempts to balance and equalize field data from widely different materials, with differences of crushability, efficiency of feeding, sizing of the feed, and so on. The tests described in this paper were undertaken with the objectives of checking previously reported capacities; of studying the effects of various factors upon the capacity, including jaw plate curvature; and, if possible, of deriving a general capacity equation. Such an equation has been derived from the data obtained in these tests. It is given together with factors for its use. While more accuracy than is usually required may be obtained by careful application of the equation, it is of simple form and provides a convenient reference plane upon which the potential capacity of various crushers may be compared, and with which operating adjustments may be made on existing installations. The principal deviation in these tests from the usual approach consists of a laboratory technique which has been developed for the production of selected

Jan 1, 1949

By Frank G. Snyder

The Precambrian of Midcontinent United States includes a metamorphic belt of probable Middle Precambrian age, a belt of Keweenawan volcanics and sediments, and widespread igneous activity that extended from Iowa to Texas. Most of the present structural configuration of the Midcontinent was developed by epeirogenic movements during the Paleozoic. The dominant elements are basins and arches. Three major metallogenic provinces occur in the Midcontinent. They include the Missouri Precambrian iron ores, the Lake Superior copper ores, and the Mississippi Valley lead-zincbarite- fluorite deposits. Several large iron deposits, occurring in rhyolite and andesite host rocks, are known. Both discordant massive bodies and replacement- type bodies occur. The iron deposits are believed to have been formed during the period of igneous activity. They are essentially the same age as the volcanics and older than the granites that intrude the volcanics. The Lake Superior copper ores include two established districts, the Keweenawan district and White Pine, and the copper-nickel deposits in the Duluth gabbro. The lead-zinc-barite-fluorite deposits include four major districts, Southeast Missouri, Upper Mississippi Valley, Tri-State, and Illinois-Kentucky, and at least eight minor districts. Ore may occur in stratiform deposits and in veins. The major districts all contain stratiform deposits, but several have produced appreciable quantities of vein ore. Only vein deposits are known in some of the smaller districts. The major features of all districts can be catalogued in terms of host rocks, structural patterns of districts, types of ore-bearing structures, and mineralogical characteristics. From these features, a Mississippi Valley type ore body, in its type area, can be defined.

Jan 1, 1968

By G. L. Fisher, R. Maddin

The rate of self-diffusion in silver single crystals during torsional strain was measured over a wide range of tenperatures and strain rates. The torsional strain was applied in a cyclic manner by reversing the divection of twist aftev a certain fraction of the total strain was reached. Surface roughening was substantially reduced in cyclically strained specimens compared with those strained entirely in one direction. Diffusion coefficients were determined using a special sectioning technique whereby slices could be removed parallel to the surface of a strained torsion specimen. The accuracy of the technique was first determined using roughened specinzens statically diffused to various penetration depths. Simultaneous strain-diffusion experiments were then performed over the temperature range 550' to 800 using strain rates of lo-' to 2.2 x 10' sec-'. The increase in silver self-diffusivity during torsional plastic strain was small. In only one case was the enhancement greater than twice the static value of the diffusion coefficzent. The enhancements increased slightly with decreasing tenzperature and increased with increasing strain rate. A dislocation pipe mechanism of enhancement was found to explain the present results satisfactorily. The magnitude of the enhancements and the tenzperatures at which they were observed suggests that a steady-state dislocation density of 10' to 109 dislocations cm-2 existed during the high-tempevature deformation. The diffusion coefficient in an fcc metal can be increased by 1) an excess concentration of point defects and 2) the rapid movement of diffusing atoms along grain boundaries and dislocations. Plastic deformation may be responsible for enhancements by both of these mechanisms. The results of simultaneous strain-diffusion experiments have caused a controversy over the magnitude of the effect of strain upon diffusion. Experiments reporting large enhancements have been criticized for the manner in which the diffusion coefficient was measured. Several of these experiments have been contradicted by other results obtained in a similar manner. No enhancement was reported by two investigators''' who performed their experiments at high temperatures where strain is expected to have little effect upon diffusion. A recent theoretical analysis3 indicates that strain enhancement by a vacancy mechanism will be small and exist only at low temperatures and rapid strain rates. It is doubtful whether any experiment has yet proven that strain enhancements can occur by an excess vacancy mechanism. In the present research, experiments were performed at extremes of temperature and strain rate in an attempt to measure enhancement of diffusion by strain. Self-diffusion of silver during torsional deformation was chosen since two separate investigations4j5 indicate that at least a small enhancement exists under these conditions. An accurate method of determining the diffusion coefficient, mechanical sectioning, was employed after a technique was devised to apply it to the roughened surface of a strained torsion specimen. First, the accuracy of the technique was determined for different penetrations (2fi). Then diffusion experiments were performed at temperatures between 550" and 800°C at strain rates of 10"" to 10"" per sec. I) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Preparation of Specimens. The experimental procedure detailing the growth of crystals, their treatment, and the annealing techniques during straining are contained in earlier publications.496 The dimensions and orientations of the torsion specimens are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. licatiin of Torsional Strain. The torsion procedure was changed from that used previously. The specimens were strained in cycles to reduce the gross distortion and surface roughening inherent in twisting to high strains in one direction. For all strains above 0.30, the total surface strain was obtained as follows: the specimen was twisted to 0.10 strain in a clockwise direction; the direction was reversed; the backlash in the torsion apparatus was taken up; and the specimen was twisted in a counterclockwise direction through the initial starting point to 0.20 surface shear strain in the opposite direction. The strain reversal took no more than 1 min to accomplish. The total accumulated surface shear strain was arbitrarily taken as the sum of the 0.10 strain in the clockwise direction plus 0.20 in the counterclockwise direction. Although cyclic torsional strain was beneficial, surface roughening and specimen distortion were not entirely eliminated. The variation in the diameter at various points on the specimen was often much greater than the depth of the diffusion zone. Since serious errors might result if specimens were sectioned in the usual manner, a technique of lathe sectioning was devised to allow sections to be taken parallel to planes of equal concentration.

Jan 1, 1967

By C. W. MacGregor

IN the testing of materials there exist various methods of recording graphically the behavior of a material subjected to tensile stress. Prob-ably the most common method is to plot the tensile stress So, obtained by dividing the load P by the original area of cross section AO at the start of the test, as a function of the strain ?o, which is obtained by dividing the ?Lo or the change in the gauge length by the original gauge length Lo. A list of the symbols used here is given in Table 1. This method, while it has proved useful in the routine testing and comparison of various materials, does not have a very sound physical basis, as was first pointed out by P. Ludwik1, and consequently does not afford a very deep insight into the true physical behavior of the material under stress. Among the objections to this method may be mentioned: (1) that by dividing the load P at any stage of the test by the original area Ao a fictitious stress is obtained, which does not actually exist; (2) that the strain ?o = ?Lo /Lo is not an exact expression for the true strain for large values of ?Lo in per cent of Lo; (3) that when necking starts the strain varies considerably along the gauge length and the above expression no longer gives the true strain existing at any point on the outside of the bar; and (4) that the axial strain varies over the cross section of the necked portion and ?o does not represent an average of these strains over the cross section. Stresses taken from such a diagram would be only approximate and, if used to compare results of a test on a given material under simple tension with results obtained under combined stresses, certain errors would he thus introduced. In order to overcome some of these objections, various methods have been suggested, both as to the quantities to be measured and as to their graphical representation. In some cases the so-called "true stress," obtained by dividing the load P by the actual area of cross section A existing when the load P was applied, is plotted as a function of the strain

Jan 1, 1937

By C. W. MacGregor

In the testing of materials there exist various methods of recording graphically the behavior of a material subjected to tensile stress. Probably the most common method is to plot the tensile stress So, obtained by dividing the load P by the original area of cross section A0 at the start of the test, as a function of the strain e0, which is obtained by dividing the ?Lo or the change in the gauge length by the original gauge length Lo. A list of the symbols used here is given in Table 1. This method, while it has proved useful in the routine testing and comparison of various materials, does not have a very sound physical basis, as was first pointed out by P. Ludwikl, and consequently does not afford a very deep insight into the true physical behavior of the material under stress. Among the objections to this method may be mentioned: (1) that by dividing the load P at any stage of the test by the original area A. a fictitious stress is obtained, which does not actually exist; (2) that the strain e0 = ?L0 is not an exact expression for the true strain for large values of ?LO in per cent of Lo; (3) that when necking starts the strain varies considerably along the gauge length and the above expression no longer gives the true strain existing at any point on the outside of the bar; and (4) that the axial strain varies over the cross section of the necked portion and e0 does not represent an average of these strains over the cross section. Stresses taken from such a diagram would be only approximate and, if used to compare results of a test on a given material under simple tension with results obtained under combined stresses, certain errors would be thus introduced. In order to overcome some of these objections, various methods have been suggested, both as to the quantities to be measured and as to their graphical representation. In some cases the so-called "true stress," obtained by dividing the load P by the actual area of cross section A existing when the load P was applied, is plotted as a function of the strain

Jan 1, 1937

By HENRY M. HOWEL

1. Introduction.-The first part of this papers treats of the causes and the restraining of piping in steel ingots; the second& considers the causes and the restraining of -segregation; and the third proposes certain precautions in engineering specifications concerning these two defects. Into their causes I have looked carefully, with the purpose of arriving at rational methods of restraining them, and at efficient ways of detecting. and measuring the harm which they cause, so as to benefit the public by reducing this harm at once effectively and with the least expense to the manufacturer, and therefore in the end with the least expense to the consumer. In Part I., I infer that the pipe is chiefly due to what I, call the virtual expansion of the outer walls of the ingot in the early part of the freezing. I find that the upper and smooth-faced part of the pipe probably forms while the interior is still molten, but that the lower, steep, and crystal-faced part probably forms in metal which is already firm. Of the five causes which may co-operate to limit the depth of the pipe, I find that three-blow-holes, sagging, and the progress of freezing from below upwards-are usually effective. I find that the pipe may be lessened by casting (1) in wide ingots,; (2) in sand molds, especially if these are pre-heated (this is rarely expedient); (3) at the tops instead of at the bottom; (4) slowly; (5) and with the large end up; (6) by the use of a sinking-head or other means of retarding the cooling of the top; (7) by permitting blow-holes to form; and (8) by liquid compression.) Most of these I consider in some detail, and in particular I dwell on the advantages of casting with the large end up, and I propose certain administrative arrangements to permit this.

Mar 1, 1907

By S. H. Ward, R. A. Barker

THE Juniper Prospect is in Carleton County, N. B., at approximately 46" 31' north latitude, 67" 20' west longitude. During the summer of 1955 an area in west-central New Brunswick was selected for aerial electromagnetic prospecting with American Metal Co.'s helicopter-mounted equipment. Generalized, small-scale government geologic maps had suggested that this area was located along the western border of the northeast-trending granitic backbone of northwestern New Brunswick and might be underlain by the Ordovician-Silurian sediments and volcanics that are the host rocks for the recently discovered sul-fide deposits of the Bathurst-Newcastle district. The helicopter electromagnetic equipment located an anomalous conductive area, coincident with a small aeromagnetic closure, about five miles west of the town of Juniper. Subsequently 30 mining claims (total area about 6600 x 8000 ft) were staked and company personnel conducted geological, geophysical, and geochemical investigations on the property. The claims and immediately contiguous areas were mapped geologically, and an area of about 2000 x 4000 ft was soil-sampled and also surveyed by ground electromagnetic and gravity methods. Finally six diamond drillholes, totaling 3500 ft in length, were drilled to test the anomalous conditions discovered by the several exploration techniques used. The discovery of base metal sulfides during drilling was a technical success for the exploration methods, but the quantity of sulfides was too small to be profitably exploited.

Jan 1, 1959