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By Huang Kai

Uniform needle-like and spherical nickel oxalate particles were prepared by the chelating precipitation process, which was based on the reaction of oxalate acid and the solution of ammonia nickel chloride. The molar ratio of ammonia to nickel ion in the mixed solution is essential to determine whether the spherical or needle-like particles are formed, which means actually the concentration of ammonia is the key to determine the growth mechanism. When oxalate acid is added in the form of solid, it may act as the nucleation interface for the eariy-precipitated substance and so induce the formation of spherical particles. The PVP agent can improve the dispersing degree of the needle-like particles and higher reacting temperature leads to larger particles. The composition of the needle-like particle consists of ammonium and nickel oxalate instead of the pure nickel oxalate.

Jan 1, 2003

By J. Tang, B. Q. Li, R. Akarapu

"An integrated model is developed to represent the three-dimensional electromagnetic wave propagation and thermal phenomena during microwave heating of ceramics and dielectric/biological materials. The model development is based on the edge finite element formulation for electromagnetic fields and the node fmite element formulation for thermal phenomena. Results are presented and compared well with available analytical solutions and experimental measurements. With the model, the effect of sample positions on the electromagnetic and thermal field distributions is studied.IntroductionMicrowave, as an electro-heating source, has been widely used in the processing industries for packaged foods and other materials. The commonly used household microwave oven is a typical example of microwave heating processes. Other industrial microwave processing systems include large-scale microwave guides and cavities, which are used for the sintering operations as required for making ceramic components or for sterilizing the packaged foods."

Jan 1, 2004

By R. Gampala

The consolidation of mom matrix composite monotapes occurs by the plastic (time independant) and creep deformation of monotape asperities. Past models of the process used seperate micromechanical analyses of the contact deformation by (rate independent) plasticity and power law creep (i.e steady state creep). These models are now used to simulate consolidation and to optimize/control consolidation process cycles so that the composite's microstructure is "steered" to, a user defined goal state. However, the models do not incorporate the sometimes dominant transient creep process and the instantaneous response of the plasticity mechanism causes finite discontinuities in the microstructure state vector field and therefore eliminates the possibility of using the powerful array of trajectory optimization schemes that all require continuous vector field for optimization and control. To overcome this problem, a inified creep/plasticity constitutive model that results in a continuous state vector field is used to rederive the contact deformation response during monotape consolidation. The contact blunting of a laterally constrained hemispherical asperity is first analyzed and its response represented by two coefficients; one relating the contact area to the blunting strain (C), the second, the mean contact pressure to the blunting rate (F).The C and F coefficients for this unified blunting problem are then obtained by finite element analysis, and detailed results presented for two composite matri-ces of topical interest (Ti-24A1-11Nb and Ti-6Al-4V).

Jan 1, 1996

By Norbert Hort, Karl Ulrich Kainer, Carsten Blawert, Daniel Fechner

"With the development of new heat resistant magnesium alloys, the automotive industry has introduced several parts to the drive train. The rising number of large magnesium components will result in a higher quantity of automotive post consumer scrap and the changing legislation will force car manufacturers to take magnesium recycling into consideration. So far post consumer scrap has not been used for magnesium alloy production. Quite a reasonable amount of automotive scrap is likely to end up in a mixed light metal shredder fraction. The separation of mixed magnesium scrap according to several alloys is complex. Therefore secondary magnesium alloys made from blended post consumer scrap would be useful. For this work a matrix of potential recycling alloys was prepared by chill casting and high pressure die casting. The materials were investigated for their microstructure, mechanical properties, heat resistance and corrosion properties. The results will be presented in this paper.IntroductionWithin the last ten to fifteen years several heavy magnesium parts have been assembled in passenger cars, such as gear box housings and crank cases [1, 2]. Reasons are the lately developed new heat resistant alloys and the increasing responsibility of automotive manufacturers to reduce the vehicles weight and thereby CO2 emissions. The latter is pushed by international legislation [3, 4]. The rising quantity of magnesium in automobiles will result in an increasing amount of so called post consumer scrap at the end of the vehicles life.So far magnesium recycling was done only for clean scrap that is free from impurities, contaminations and sorted according to a chemical composition or a single alloy respectively [5- 15]. The latter is also called class 1 scrap and mainly consists of sprues and runners from magnesium die casters [15, 16]. For the upcoming automotive post consumer scrap the materials quality strongly depends on the way end of life vehicles are treated. By proper dismantling of old cars, the bigger magnesium components could be collected and possibly treated similar to class 1 scrap [15]. Up to date automotive manufacturers have no uniform recycling system for end of live vehicles. Most probably a considerable quantity of old cars will be shredded. The resulting light metal shredder fraction will contain aluminium and magnesium scrap, both from several alloys. A separation of mixed magnesium and aluminium scrap is feasible according to [17]. Other authors claimed that the grade of separation of magnesium from aluminium is still not sufficient for a proper industrial recycling process of magnesium post consumer scrap [15, 16]. If an automatic sorting is possible it will probably be very expensive [18]. Therefore, so far the main use of post consumer scrap has been the steel desulphurisation and aluminium production [15]. The use of post consumer scrap for magnesium alloy production has been considered already by [15] and [16] but some problems have to be approached."

Jan 1, 2008

By Brommerm Tracey, Britt Elin Gihleengen, Elsa Olivetti, Hans Ole Riddervold, Randolph Kirchain, Geir Øyen

"Compositional uncertainty in secondary materials and variable processing conditions inhibits secondary material utilization in the production of aluminum alloys. Efforts to implement optimization models that direct batch planning have limited industrial presence due to factors such as the insensitivity of these optimization models to dynamic plant circumstances. This paper describes a chance constrained model formulation that generates lower cost, robust batch plans with significant flexibility towards changes in processing conditions. The principal attribute of the chance constrained formulation is its inherent mitigation of risk by diversifying the batch plan. This paper compares aluminum remelter batch planning using the chance constrained formulation with a traditional deterministic model and a manual batch planner. With the expectation that volatile material prices, restricted scrap material availability, and pressure by consumers and legislation for increased recycled raw material input will continue in the future, batch planning tools that inherently diversify a production portfolio will become increasingly advantageous for industrial aluminum remelters.IntroductionAluminum remelters must develop strategies to incorporate lower cost secondary materials into finished alloys to remain competitive amidst increasingly demanding market and regulatory conditions. Determining the optimal combination of incoming raw materials to produce an alloy that meets compositional specifications presents remelters with a complex problem that has driven the development of computational tools commonly referred to as batch planning or blending algorithms. The ubiquity of the ingredient or raw material blending problem in production has motivated ongoing development of batch planning algorithms since the classic nut-mix problem in the 1950's [1]. The most common model formulation for industrial aluminum remelters are deterministic, linear optimization programs [2]. These blending problems determine the optimal combination of raw materials by minimizing cost subject to constraints around demand, availability, and compositional specification. Despite extensive research and moderate computational requirements, batch planning algorithms are inconsistently used in industry. Insufficient incorporation of the complexity of real world remelting conditions into these models provides an obstacle for their implementation [3]. For example, many batch planning algorithms do not explicitly incorporate the impact of compositional variation of the raw materials on overall batch cost. Additionally, they do not allow for endogenous specification of tolerance to error in batch planning, so provide little flexibility where a batch planner would like to incorporate materials of greater uncertainty. Incomplete accounting for quality variability undervalues secondary materials leading to overly conservative use [ 4, 5]."

Jan 1, 2011

By L. A. Barta

A new process for the leaching of chalcopyrite concentrates has been developed and tested in miniplant campaigns and locked cycle testwork carried out between 1996 and 1999. The process involves pressure leaching in a sulphuric acid solution, e.g. raffinate from copper solvent extraction. Iron in the feeds is precipitated predominantly as hematite in the autoclave, simultaneously with copper extraction. Gold and silver in the pressure leach residue are recoverable by conventional cyanidation, following flotation to remove elemental sulphur by-product. The results of recent miniplant tests and batch locked cycle tests are provided.

Jan 1, 1999

By D. C. Foguel, J. L. R. Bravo

For several years, Caraiba Metais S.A. (CMSA) had to stock the arsenic sludge generated from the electrolyte purification process of its tankhouse. The amount stocked · reached approximately 3,500 tonnes, as the effects of its recycling during the smelting process and consequently in the sulfuric acid plant were unknown. Besides, it had as limiting factors the high content of arsenic in the copper concentrates supplied by foreign countries as well as the reduced capacity of the tankhouse's purification plant. The choice for selling the mentioned residue, which generally contains more than 50% of Cu, was attractive, but the environmental policies and regulations had not allowed this option. Other alternatives, such as the production of bicupric arsenic by means of a solvent extraction process or arsenic trioxide, were considered but the economic feasibility was not attractive due to the absence of a domestic market and a poor international market. After a study of the arsenic partition in the metallurgical process, it was verified that the residue could be recycled without causing any operational problems or damage to the environment. To make this possible, the capacity of the purification plant was increased and the way of removing the arsenic sludge from the cells was modified from manual to mechanical, therefore avoiding the direct contact of the workers with this poisonous substance. Moreover, procedures for recycling in the smelter were established and tolerance limits were set for both the smelter and the sulfuric acid plant. The main amount of arsenic to be recycled is released with the smelting furnace off-gas, which is washed during the purification stage of the sulfuric acid plant. The acid water, rich in arsenic, is then treated in the waste plant and the arsenic, in its stabilized condition, is confined in an appropriate area.

Jan 1, 2000

By Jose Luis Lopez Mendez

In May 1992, MEXICANA DE CANANEA, S.A. DE C.V. finalized the life of its Reverberatory Furnace which lasted 16 years. This created the need to prepare the Smelter for the next campaign.

Jan 1, 1994

By Corby G. Anderson

Today, with a stringent economic and environmental climate prevailing in the copper business, there is increased interest in evaluating new processing alternatives for production. Hydrometallurgical pressure oxidation of copper concentrates is one of the more viable approaches and several technological candidates have emerged. Of these, an overlooked but industrially proven methodology utilizing nitrogen species catalyzation in the oxidizing pressure leach system may prove to be a feasible process alternative for the future. In this paper, the history of the system and its application to chalcopyrite concentrates will be outlined. In particular, a methodology for effective treatment of precious metals bearing chalcopyrite concentrates via partial oxidation at low temperatures and pressures will be discussed. Finally, the perceived economics of this unique industrially proven process will be delineated.

Jan 1, 1999

By C. J. McKee

A gold-silver-lead-zinc deposit at Montana Tunnels, Jefferson County, Montana is located in a diatreme of middle Eocene age (45 to 50 m.y.). Sulfide minerals within the diatreme occur as disseminations, veinlets, and locally as breccia matrix. Principal sulfide minerals are pyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The diatreme is a matrix-rich quartz latitic breccia with a fine grained rather soft matrix and heterolithic clasts. The ore deposit contains approximately 50 million tons of ore at a grade of 0.025 oz/ton Au, 0.5 oz/ton Ag, 0.25 % Pb, and 0.65 % Zn. Mining is by open pit methods. The original process flowsheet included flotation and cyanide leaching. Problems with the leaching circuit led to a change to the straight flotation process which is presently in use. To maintain a reason-ably uniform feed material, blending of ore is required for grades of four metals as well as for ore hardness and oxidation.

Jan 1, 1988

By Juan Ruiz-Ornelas, Yousef Mohassab, Ricardo Morales-Estrella, Hong Yong Sohn, Noemi Ortiz-Lara

The effect of mechanical activation on the reduction kinetics of magnetite concentrate by hydrogen was studied. The magnetite concentrate was milled for 8 h using a planetary mill. After the milling process, the average particle size was reduced from 14 to 4.4 m resulting in a lattice microstrain of 0.30. Thermogravimetric experiments were conducted to focus on the chemical reaction as the rate controlling factor by eliminating external mass transfer effects and using a thin layer of particles to remove interstitial diffusion resistance. The onset temperature of reduction was decreased due to the mechanical activation, and the degree of conversion was decreased by sintering of particles which was confirmed by SEM analyses. In view of the results, a reaction rate expression is discussed from which the activation energy is calculated.

Jan 1, 2016

By V. L. Stolyarova

As part of an effort to develop the fluoride electrolysis route for the production of rare earth metals and alloys, a study of the thermodynamic properties of DyF3 has been carried out by Knudsen cell mass spectrometry. A quadrupole mass spectrometer QMS 420 was used in conjunction with the Knudsen cell arrangement. The experiments were carried out in the temperature range 1280-1440 K. Vaporization was carried out from platinum, molybdenum and tantalum cells. The Dy*, DyF+, DyF2+ fragment ions and the DyF3 parent ion were identified in the mass spectrum of the DyF3 vapour. The DyF, vapour pressure was obtained by the complete isothermal vaporizadon method as well as the ion current comparison method, and the enthalpy of sublimation of DyF3 was evaluated. From the DyF3 vapour pressure data obtained at different temperatures, the enthalpies of formation of DyF3 in the gaseous as well as condensed phases have been evaluated. The experimental data are compared with the thermodynamic information available in literature.

Jan 1, 1995

By Laurentiu Nastac

"The importance of investigating solute redistribution during the unidirectional solidification of multi-component alloys is broadly discussed in the literature. A previously developed analytical model that was experimentally validated for Al-Cu, Sn- Bi and Fe-Si dilute binary alloy systems is used in this article to study in detail the solute redistribution, the liquid/solid interface stability based on an extended transient constitutional undercooling criterion and the size of the initial transient region during the unidirectional solidification of Ti-6-4 and Ti-17 alloys. A comparison between Ti-6-4 and Ti-17 alloy systems with respect to interface stability and the size of the initial transient region is also provided. The effective partition coefficients of the alloying elements in these alloys were determined based on specially designed experimental measurements.IntroductionThe importance of investigating solute redistribution during alloy solidification is broadly discussed in the literature [1-5]. One of the relevant applications of this study would be the mathematical modeling of equiaxed and columnar solidification of multicomponent alloys. This includes the instability of the solid/liquid interface. There are several mass and heat transfer processes that involve the calculation of solute redistribution during directional solidification such as industrial directional solidification processes, continuous casting, remelting processes, Czochralski crystal growth technique, floating zone techniques, etc."

Jan 1, 2012

By Jiangtao Li, Zhongwei Zhao, Xingyu Chen, Xuheng Liu

The method of ultrasonic-assisted leaching was used to extract vanadium from the stone coal, with alkali as leaching reagent. The effects of ultrasonic power, concentration of alkali, reaction temperature, liquid-solid ratio and reaction time were investigated, respectively. The optimal ultrasonic leaching condition for vanadium extraction is as follows: ultrasonic power 230W, concentration of alkali 5%, liquid-solid ratio 3:1, reaction temperature 90℃ and reaction time 1h. The leaching rate of vanadium reaches 76.4% under the optimal condition, which is 12.2% higher than that of non-ultrasonic leaching. The reason on enhancing the leaching rate of vanadium by ultrasonic leaching was discussed. It is indicated that the ultrasonic cavitation can increase the surface area of mineral, which is beneficial to facilitate the reaction rate. Keywords: stone coal; vanadium; alkaline leaching; ultrasonic

Jan 1, 2014

By Yanxia Lu

Porous silicon carbide (SiC) has been the top selection for diesel particular filters (DPFs) since 2000 because of its high thermal diffusivity and strong body, which help it to survive in the harsh environment of a diesel exhaust system. However, the process to produce SiC DPFs is a costly one. The work presented herein describes more cost effective composite materials for this application, namely Si-SiC and Si₃N₄-SiC. Both composites have shown excellent filtration efficiency, low back pressure and outstanding survivability of regeneration at high soot loadings. Since the composites are batched from silicon metal, they can be prepared by a low temperature process that is impossible in the production of pure SiC PDFs. In fact, fabrication of SiC composites simply involves reactions between nitrogen gas and silicon metal, or silicon metal bonded with SiC, and as such uses a much less costly process when compared to the one employed to make SiC. In addition, the pore structure of the composites can easily be tuned by selecting raw materials and changing the ratio of two components. A typical pore structure consists of well connected pores with a median pore size of 5-20 µm and a porosity of 40-55%. This talk will describe the exothermic behavior as well as the mechanical and thermal properties of SiC composites in comparison to those of SiC filters. It will also show the superior thermal shock resistance of Si₃N₄ bonded SiC which is due to the unique combination of these phases that lowers the thermal expansion and elastic modulus relative to pure SiC.

Jan 1, 2006

By Ruben Alvarado

The need to increase business competitiveness while complying with environmental requirements represent the great challenge that the Caletones smelter has decided to face in a new development project with a compromising and willing alliance with its workers. To date, the project is at the feasibility stage, with start up scheduled for the middle of the year 2002. The processing capacity of the Teniente Converters will be increased to levels up to 2400 tpd of chalcopyrite-based concentrates containing 30% Cu, by means of more intensive use of oxygen and improved stabilization of the overall operation. Productivity increses in the converting of white metal and the pyrometallurgical treatment of slag are also planned. As a result of related strategies, the productivity of the supporting facilities, included the capacitiy of the sulfuric acid plants, will be increased. An intensive and well-designed labor-upgrading scheme will allow the transformation of every worker into an expert in his working areas, thus becoming an active driving force in technology development. Mechanization, appropiate infrastructure, and complete process control and instrumentation will give to the skilled and motivated personnel the necessary tools in order to attain the highest potential ever reached with the Teniente technology. The necessary investment for this project based on the adding facilities to the existing plant is only a third of that required to reach the same objective for a greenfield plant, thus yielding a very high return on investment.

Jan 1, 1999

By Laurentiu Nastac

"Two advanced control solidification technologies were studied in this article to improve the quality of the cast ingots as well as to control the solidification structure evolution during the plasma arc melting (PAM) processing of Ti-6-4 ingots: (i) electromagnetic stirring (EMS), and (ii) ultrasonic treatment (UST). The developed EMS modeling approach is based on the numerical solution of Maxwell's equations, fluid flow, and heat transfer equations, and mesoscopic modeling of the grain structure. The UST analysis tool is capable to model acoustic streaming and cavitation. It is used in this work to study ingot solidification under the presence of ultrasound. Predictions of the macrostructure, GET formation and primary dendrite arm spacing for PAM Ti-6-4 ingots processed with and without EMS or UST were discussed.1. IntroductionTitanium (Ti) alloys are melted, refined and cast into ingots through plasma arc cold hearth melting (PAM), electron beam cold hearth melting (EBM) and vacuum arc remelting (VAR) for jet engine applications. Process modeling has become a viable tool to optimize the PAM, EBM, and VAR processes. A comprehensive modeling approach to simulate ingot solidification phenomena in primary melting and secondary remelting processes of Ti alloys would include models for macroscopic mass transfer, heat transfer, fluid flow, acoustic, electromagnetic and species transport. The approach should also include microscopic models to predict the evolution of grain structure in solidifying ingots in conjunction with electromagnetic stirring (EMS) and ultrasonic stirring (UST)."

Jan 1, 2012

By Tiruttani Munikamal, Suresh Sundarraj

"A numerical model of the induction hardening process of steel cranks has been developed and the predicted results of temperature and phase distribution during this solid state phase transformation process are verified with experimental data from the literature. This heat treatment process involves heating the crank to the austenitic temperature range followed by rapid quenching in water to harden the surface of the crank. The model has been developed using ABAQUS, commercial FEA software. The formation of martensite, pearlite, and retained austenite phases are modeled and implemented through a user defined function in ABAQUS. A sensitivity study on the various process parameters affecting the amount of phase distribution has been carried out.IntroductionThe type of surface and sub-surface microstructure as well as the residual stresses that are present in a component after manufacturing, significantly affects it fatigue performance. The wear resistance of the automotive components such as crankshaft, gears, camshaft and bearings depends on the surface hardness. In order to achieve the surface hardness, these steel components are subjected to a type of quench hardening heat treatment process. There are several heat treatment processes available for the industrial application to improve the mechanical properties of the final part. Case hardening using induction heating is one of the widely used industrial techniques for improving the surface microstructure of a steel component. It consists of two stages i.e. induction heating cycle, followed by quenching in a fluid medium (usually water or oil)"

Jan 1, 2012

By James P. Bennett

The successful reuse/recycling of refractory materials after removal from industrial service is limited because of contamination, the low value of spent materials, the low cost of virgin raw materials, the lack of driving forces such as regulations or taxes, and low disposal costs. Most spent refractory is disposed in landfills. Concerns over future liability for waste materials, corporate images, and IS0 14000 have helped to encourage recycling at some companies. The recycling practices and application for spent refractory materials at facilities successfully recycling used refractory materials will be discussed, with emphasis on similarities.

Jan 1, 2002

"Silver is traditionally recovered in base metal smelters (lead and copper), or as a by-product of other precious metals (gold and/or PGM's). This paper presents the results of non-conventional techniques to recover silver from complex materials. The PLATSOL® process has been developed to recover, in one step and without the use of cyanide, base metals (copper, cobalt, nickel) and precious metals (gold, PGM's) from sulphide concentrates too low in grade to enter the mainstream extraction processes. Silver is only partially recovered in solution with gold and the PGM's during the PLATSOL® process. However, the silver minerals are transformed into silver chloride, which can then be recovered from the PLATSOL® residue using conventional techniques. Some South American silver concentrates contain levels of impurity (mostly arsenic) so elevated that the penalties incurred significantly affect the process economics. The present results have shown that a low temperature calcination process transforms the concentrate into a product well suited for traditional recovery treatments. Metallurgical details will be provided, as well as the results of mineralogical studies that helped clarify the process mechanisms.IntroductionSilver occurrences in nature are very diversified, and, therefore, primary silver is produced as a by-product of many base metal and precious metal operations [1], as well as a co-product of most gold ores. However, difficulties can arise when high temperature processes are used for refractory gold ores or copper concentrates, or when the silver concentrate contains impurity elements such as arsenic that trigger high penalties."

Jan 1, 2012