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By Richard Pearce

In the treatment of auriferous copper containing bismuth, I have recently observed a small quantity of a grayish-white alloy, which on examination, proved to be Bi containing in solution, as it were, a crystalline alloy of Bi and Au. This compound makes its appearance on the surface of the auriferous Cu in small globules as the latter cools. These globules are rapidly attacked by nitric acid, and fine needleshaped crystals of Bi and Au separate out. They arc insoluble even in strong nitric acid. On examination, the crystals mere found to contain : Gold, 69.94 per cent.; silver, 0.63 per cent. ; bismuth, 29.43 per cent. (No. I).* The residue is very fusible, and at a temperature considerably below its melting-point it oxidizes rapidly, changing from its original gray color to a greenish-yellow (No. 2). On melting in a crucible under flux, a bronze-colored alloy is formed that has the specific gravity 15.47—somewhat higher than the calculated specific gravity of a simple mixture of the two metals in the proportions named. Alloys of Gold and Silver.—In following out my investigations by repeated examinations of this alloy formed at different times, I found that, in dissolving a miscellaneous lot of the alloy in nitric acid, some gold-yellow crystals were formed, which I succeeded in separating from the BiAu alloy by washing. These yellow crystals, under the microscope, showed distinct, regular, octahedral faces, and on examination they were found to be a crystalline alloy of Au and

Jan 1, 1885

Arizona ROBERT E TALLY, Chairman CARL F MILLS, Secretary-treasurer, P O Box 1462, Jerome, Ariz W. S. BOYD THOMAS H O. O'BRIEN F. W MACLENNAN Boston Meets first Monday each winter month GALEN H. CLEVENCER, Chairman HOLCOMB J BROWN, Vice-chairman F LEROY FOSTER, Secretary-treasurer, Room 8-219, Mass. Inst of Tech, Cambridge, Mass A. E WELLS H A WENTWORTH

Jan 1, 1923

By Allen Rogers

IT has always seemed to me that there is a certain similarity between the work of the mining engineer and that of the doctor of medicine-each has very often to be governed in his actions by conditions which he cannot. see. It is not necessary to detail the unseen conditions with which the mining engineer or geologist has to deal-the further extension of orebodies; the existence of new ones, the throw of a fault, the probable change in grade or character of the ore with advance of the workings, are a few of the conditions which the mining engineer has to determine as well as he can from the deductions he is able to make from what he can observe. Just so the physician is often confronted with conditions that he can not observe. Probably less than half of human ills make a manifestation at the surface of the body from which definite and certain conclusions can be drawn. The diagnostician must observe various things and, from these observations in combination, conclude what 'his course should be to bring about the cure of the trouble. Both professions would be assisted immensely by any agency that would permit them to look below the surface, something that would make more certain the diagnosis which each is called upon to make. The physician has had such an agency since 1895, when Röntgen discovered the X-ray; which, by making possible shadowgraphs of the osseous portion of the human body, advanced immensely the diagnosis of bone lesions. Later, with improvement in the technique and more understanding in the interpretation of what the photographic plate shows, other portions of the human anatomy could be examined and at the present time there is hardly an instance of internal disorder to which the aid of the X-ray is not called. Some organs are made opaque by administering mineral substances; in, other cases, conclusions are drawn from barely perceptible shadows on the photographic plate. Generally the surgeon's knife is directed with exactitude to the seat of the trouble and so not only is the difficulty revealed but the necessity for an exploratory' operation is averted.

Jan 1, 1928

By J. W. Evans

ONE of the most important and frequent calculations that the extractive metallurgist is called upon to make is that of the standard free energy change of a reaction (?F°). For many reactions of metallurgical interest, the lengthy arithmetical calculations have been eliminated by the use of free energy-temperature diagrams which have been constructed by Ellingham,1 Richardson and Jeffes,2 Kellogg,3 and Osborn4 (e.g., for oxides, sulphides, halides) from critical surveys of existing data. The speed and simplicity of making calculations with these graphs make them of great practical value and, this should be stressed, in the majority of cases no greater accuracy is obtained by the individual calculations from specific heat data, entropies, and heats of reaction. With the increasing industrial application of vacuum methods to the winning of metals, notably at present magnesium and the alkaline earth metals, it is necessary to calculate low metal vapor pressures above reaction mixtures. The existing free energy diagrams usually give values where the solid and liquid metals are at unit activity. To obtain the free energy change associated with the reaction Metal (solid or liquid) = Metal (gas) it is customary to calculate this from either vapor pressure equations or from the appropriate free energy functions. This paper presents graphically the free energies of vaporization of a number of metals of economic importance which can be used in conjunction with other free energy diagrams. Certain metals have been excluded on the following grounds: titanium, tungsten, molybdenum, and platinum have very high heats of vaporization and boiling points and the uncertainty of these values arising from difficulties of high temperature measurements makes free energy values of doubtful accuracy; the data for cobalt, vanadium, and zirconium are uncertain; finally, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth could not be conveniently included. because of the presence of mixtures of polyatomic and mona-tomic vapors in the temperature range considered. Free Energy Diagram In Fig. 1, the standard free energies of vaporization per mol (?F°T) have been plotted for the temperature range 0" to 2000°C for the reaction M (solid or liquid) = M (gas) The data have been obtained from the free energy functions — (F-H298)/T for the solid, liquid, and gaseous elements and the heats of vaporization at 298°K, i.e., ?H298 (vapor). The values of these functions have been taken without change from the recent critical survey by Brewer;' the bulk of this data is from Kelley7 with adjustments in the light of more recent work. Values of the function — (F-H298) /T at T = 298°, 500°, 1000°, 1500°, and 2000°K were employed. Where possible, a further independent value was obtained by using the boiling point, i.e., where ?F°T = 0. All calculations are based on the assumption that the metal vapors are monatomic and that the boiling points refer to those temperatures at which the partial pressure of the monatomic vapor above the metal is 760 mm. For the alkali metals, e.g., sodium, potassium, and lithium, diatomic gas molecules are present as minor species; details of these are discussed by Brewer." On the basis of the above values and allowing for the change in slope at the melting point, straight line graphs were constructed and extrapolated to 2000°C. The deviation from a straight line did not exceed ±500 cal, which in all cases appears less than the probable error in the ?F°T values.

Jan 1, 1954

By LEWIS F. THOMAS

MINING geologists and mining engineer, rarely give due thought to the geography of mining deposits. They realize, it is true that what may be ore in one place would be only worthless rock in another because f the in accessibility of a smelter r a market; and they may consider the lack of a supply of labor, or water, or power to carry on operations. But they do not think (of these things in terms of geography. Geography may be defined as the science of relationships between earth and man, so geographers are vitally interested in the how and why of mining as it is carried on at different place, having entirely different environment-. Such environments are geographic complexes or composites of natural and cultural elements, which are listed and briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.

Jan 1, 1941

By N. K. Chen, C. H. Mathewson

Single crystals of high purity aluminum of various orientations were carefully documented after plastic extension. Special attention was given to the formation of slip lines, deformation bands, and asterism. An explanation for the geometry and mechanism of formation of deformation bands is considered. WHILE the general process of plastic extension of face-centered cubic metals is well understood,' the accompanying structural changes due to slip and rotation are far more complex than ordinarily assumed. In the case of stretched single crystals of aluminum, the complicated behavior is especially marked by the formation of deformation bands, as first indicated by Collins and Mathewson." Such bands were believed by them and also by others,".'7 who have discussed banded structure in general, to represent one of the important modes of lattice reorientation and to be intimately connected with the recrystallization process. Yet, despite their fundamental importance to the understanding of the mechanism df both plastic deformation and recrystallization, practically no study of the crystallographic features of these bands in their relationship to the conventional slip process has been attempted. This paper describes part of an extensive investigation on the structural behavior during plastic deformation of aluminum single crystals and is especially concerned with the characteristics of deformation bands. The investigation of the subsequent re-crystallization of deformed aluminum single crystals will be discussed in a later publication. Experimental Procedure Single crystal specimens of 99.996+ pct pure aluminum, Yz in. in diam and 5 to 6 in. in length were made both by the Bridgman method5 nd by a modified temperature gradient method.'* Crystals were selected in which the lineage deviation did not exceed 2"; i.e., as determined from the back-reflection Laue X-ray photograms. These crystals were radiographed to insure that no internal porosity was present. The orientations showed good coverage of the whole area of the Taylor and Elam triangle.' Orientations of the crystals were obtained by the back-reflection Laue technique described by Greninger." Crystals so selected were tapered very carefully in a lathe to obtain a linear decrease in diameter from 0.500 to 0.350 in. along a gage length of 3 in. This is considered desirable because it permits a strain gradient to be introduced in a single specimen at one initial orientation. The advantages of tapered crystals for studying the development of slip lines and recrystallized grains have been pointed out by previous investigators." The cold-worked layer resulting from the machining operation was removed by alternate etching in aqua regia and careful polishing with 2/0 emery paper until undistorted Laue back-reflection spots were obtained. A homogenization treatment at 600 °C for 24 hr was then introduced to insure the removal of residual stress. Two of the crystals so prepared were also checked by use of a glancing angle technique. Using a copper target, at 30 kv and 10 microamperes, a monochromatic beam was positioned at right angles to the axis of the crystal about which it rotated. The time of exposure was 24 hr. From these X-ray photograms, it was concluded that the present method of preparation of single crystals is satisfactory. Following this procedure, the crystals were elec-trolytically polished in a 2:l solution of methyl alcohol and concentrated nitric acid. Intermittent

Jan 1, 1952

By N. B. Pilling, R. E. Bedworth

The corrosion of metals is one problem on which time and thought have been expended for many years. In the effort to avert the destructive action of a hostile environment, attention has been directed almost entirely to the conditions under which most metallic structures are called upon to perform, and the extensive and complicated phenomena attending the corrosive action of atmospheric agencies, acting at the ordinary atmospheric temperatures, have been studied, but there is unanimity of opinion regarding many fundamental facts. One neglected phase is the corrosive action of various gases upon metals exposed to temperatures considerably higher than the atmospheric range, and more especially the attack of atmospheric oxygen upon exposed metallic surfaces. That the problem is difficult is connoted by the practical dominance of industrial electric heating by alloys of one type (nickel-chromium). Proprietary interest may account, in part, for the paucity of information available upon even the most general factors determining the behavior of metals and alloys when exposed to such exacting conditions. The present paper gives some conclusions reached as the result of experimental work, extending over several years, on the mechanism and contributory factors of the high-temperature oxidation of a number of simple unalloyed metals; it is free from experimental detail and proof. High-temperature metallic oxidation may be considered as a phase of metallic corrosion. The scheme outlined below, in which corrosive agent and environment are the principal criteria, is one way of analyzing the several groups of corrosion phenomena. Erosion.—Disintegrating or destructive action by physical causes. Corrosion.—Disintegrating or destructive action by chemical causes. Low-temperature Corrosion.—Solid participating phases essentially immobile: (a) Gaseous agent; (b) liquid agent: action electrolytic and action non-electrolytic. High-temperature Corrosion.—Solid participating phases possess diffusive mobility: (a) Liquid agent; (b) gaseous agent: reducing gases, oxidizing gases. (1) Water; (2) miscellaneous elemental and combined oxygen.

Jan 1, 1923

By R. E. Bedworth, N. B. Pilling

The corrosion of metals is one problem on which time and thought have been expended for many years. In the effort to avert the destructive action of a hostile environment, attention has been directed almost entirely to the conditions under which most metallic structures are called upon to perform, and the extensive and complicated phenomena attending the corrosive action of atmospheric agencies, acting at the ordinary atmospheric temperatures, have been studied, but there is unanimity of opinion regarding many fundamental facts. One neglected phase is the corrosive action of various gases upon metals exposed to temperatures considerably higher than the atmospheric range, and more especially the attack of atmospheric oxygen upon exposed metallic surfaces. That the problem is difficult is connoted by the practical dominance of industrial electric heating by alloys of one type (nickel-chromium). Proprietary interest may account, in part, for the paucity of information available upon even the most general factors determining the behavior of metals and alloys when exposed to such exacting conditions. The present paper gives some conclusions reached as the result of experimental work, extending over several years, on the mechanism and contributory factors of the high-temperature oxidation of a number of simple unalloyed metals; it is free from experimental detail and proof. High-temperature metallic oxidation may be considered as a phase of metallic corrosion. The scheme outlined below, in which corrosive agent and environment are the principal criteria, is one way of analyzing the several groups of corrosion phenomena. Erosion.—Disintegrating or destructive action by physical causes. Corrosion.—Disintegrating or destructive action by chemical causes. Low-temperature Corrosion.—Solid participating phases essentially immobile: (a) Gaseous agent; (b) liquid agent: action electrolytic and action non-electrolytic. High-temperature Corrosion.—Solid participating phases possess diffusive mobility: (a) Liquid agent; (b) gaseous agent: reducing gases, oxidizing gases. (1) Water; (2) miscellaneous elemental and combined oxygen.

Jan 1, 1923

By C. R. Boyd

This section is about fifty miles in length, extending from the semi-magnetic and brown iron-ore deposits, near South Fork of Holston River, on Virginia and Tennessee State line, through Bristol, Tenn., Goodson, Imboden, or Mineral City, and Big Stone Gap, Va., to the Cumberland Mountain, on the line between Virginia and Kentucky. Following a geological section from the southeast for near South Holston River), to the northwest, we encounter, first: The slates of No. III.,* generally dipping southeasterly with a trend of N. 65' E. They ontcrop along the north bank of South Holston River, having a thickness of 375 feet, 260 feet of which, as at Pen Rhyn quarry and the James quarry, southeast of Bristol, is slate of high grade for interior architectural uses. Next northwest is an undulating series, giving surface-exhibits of these slates, alternating with Trenton limestone, for 21/2 miles, to the' line of semi-magnetic red iron-ores and brown iron-ores, of the upper horizon of No. II., generally pitching southeasterly, as though the whole series, including the slate described, formed a great trough, with its middle

Jan 1, 1887

BOSTON SECTION ALFRED C. LANE, Chairman, GEORGE A. PACKARD, Vice-chairman, E. E. BUGBEE, Sec'y-Treas., Mass. Inst. of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. R. L. AGASSIZ, FRED W. DENTON. Forty-sixth Meeting The forty-sixth meeting of the Boston section was held at the University Club on Monday evening, Jan. 28, 1918. Thirty-six members and guests were present, which is a record for this Section. After a good dinner, President Philip N. Moore, of the Institute, was introduced, and spoke of the many problems of the Institute. The topics covered were the progress and growth of the Institute during the administrative year, the efforts to stimulate the local sections and to bring them more in touch with the policies and problems of the parent body and, last but not least, of the constructive results and patriotic work of the Institute in the national service of the war. The other guest of the Section, Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins, Counsel for the Priority Board, spoke most entertainingly of recent experiences in Russia, England and France. After considerable discussion during which Mr. Perkins most obligingly answered innumerable questions, the meeting adjourned at about 10 p. m.

Jan 7, 1918

By Edward Estabrook

THE Salt Creek oil field in Natrona County, Wyo., is the largest pool that has been found in the Rocky Mountain region and one of the largest in the United States. Many features of its production records are of peculiar interest, because of the unusual slowness with which it has been developed. This paper is published by the permission of the Midwest Refining Co., whose records have been freely drawn upon. Many mem¬bers of the Midwest organization have assisted in the collection of the material, but Messrs. F. E. Wood and L. E. Smith have been particularly helpful. The Salt Creek oil field is situated on a great dome with a closure of about 1500 ft., which rises at the northern end of a long anticline extending north-northwest by south-southeast for fully 25 miles. The productive area includes parts of townships 39 and 40 north and ranges 78 and 79 west of the sixth principal meridian. The Teapot oil field occupies a minor dome at about the center of the same anticline and adjoins the Salt Creek oil field on the southeast. The Teapot Naval Reserve includes the Teapot Dome and about 760 acres of the Salt Creek dome. In this paper, the Salt Creek oil field will be considered as' including all of the dome, except that part which lies within the Teapot Naval Reserve and the area west of the dome where oil is produced from shale crevices.

Jan 9, 1925

(Members are urged to send in for this column any notes of interest concerning themselves or their fellow-members.) Members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period June 10, 1916 to July 10, 1916: Arthur Adams, Miami, Ariz. John M. Lovejoy, New Rochelle, N. Y. J. H. Batcheller, Mattapoisitt, Mass. J. F. Manning, Seoul, Korea. R. S. Bonsib, Low Moor, Va. E. P. Mathewson, Anaconda, Mont. E. L. Booth, New York, N. Y. Edwin W. Mills, Seoul, Korea. C. L. Bryden, Scranton, Pa. Arthur Notman, Bisbee, Ariz. F. Crabtree, Pittsburgh, Pa. L. B. Reifsneider, Daiquiri, Cuba. L. B. Eames, Pueblo, Colo. W. S. Schuyler, Berkeley, Cal. S. J. Gormly, Guayacan, Chile. 0. N. Scott, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Ernest A. Hersam, Berkeley, Cal. Arthur F. Taggart, New Haven, Conn. A. W. Hudson, Douglas, Aria. Warren D. Thompson, Boston, Mass. Chas. W. Johnston, West Norfolk, Va. Thor. Warner, IGngman, Ariz. Rodolphe L. Agassiz has been chosen president of the Calumet & Hecla Mining Co., an office which has been vacant for over a year. Percy E. Barbour, Managing Editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal, resigned his commission as 2d Lieutenant in the Main Coast.

Jan 8, 1916

President MRS. ROBERT HURSH River Road, Silvermine Norwalk, Conn. First Vice-President MRS. THORNE E. LLOYD 14 Green Hill Road Morristown, N. J. Second Vice-President AIRS. JOHN PAUL DYER Short Hills New Jersey Third Vice-President MRS. FELIX E. WORMSER Acorn Lane Larchmont, N. Y. Fourth Vice-President MRS. JOHN J. LINCOLN Elkhorn, McDowell Co. West Virginia

Jan 1, 1942

By T. F. Witherbee

The Iron Mountain, situated three-quarters of a mile NE. of the limits of the City of Durango, rises abruptly from a level plain, and trends N. 83' E. Fig. 1 gives a view of the mountain, with the company's iron-works. There are indications that the vein or deposit of iron-ore extends also about two leagues across the Murca ranch, in the same general direction. The Iron Mountain proper is divided into two great lenses by a horse of cantera or eruptive rock, some hundreds of feet in width.

Jan 1, 1902

By Robert L. Slobod

In much of the work reported in the literature on long cores. true connate water value, probably have not been obtained because of insufficient flow of 011 to attain equilibrium. A -.satisfactory method for establishing connate water in long cores has been developed in which oil flow is maintained until no additiona1 water is displaced. INTRODUCTION Long cores have been used by sev-erals investigators in an effort to evaluate the efficiency of oil recovery for various producing schemes. The effects of many variables such as rate of displacement. pressure drop, volume of displacing medium, gas-oil ratio, inter-facial tension, and others have been investigated, and the merits of gas drive have been compared with water drive. In the older experiments no connate water was used. but in the more recent stndies the philosophy of the experiment calls for a core containing oil and connate water (irreducible water) as the starting point of the experiment. The method generally used to establish this condition in long cores involves dynamic' displacement wherein one or more phases are forced through the core. flow being maintained at a constant rate or at a constant pressure until a steady state is reached wherein there is no change of saturation with time. It is one purpose of this paper to point out that in much of the work reported in the literature true connate water values probably have not been obtained. The reason for this failure is pointed out. and a method for obtaining more reliable connate water values on long cores is presented. It is impossible at this time to completely evaluate the effect on the conclusions in the earlier papers resulting from the failure to obtain true connate water in the long cores, but some data are presented which indicate that serious errors may he present in many cases. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS Cores cut front outcrop sandstones (Strawn. Torpedo, and Elgin sandstones) with permeabilities of the order of 300 md were used. The major experiments were made with a core 18-in. long and 2-in. in diameter. Cores of the same diameter but only 12-in. long were used in a few tests? and in some work a core I-in. in diameter and 11-in. long was used. These materials were all somewhat bentonitic. 'To reduce the effect of such constituents, one of the cores (Torpedo No. 10) on which the most work was performed was acid extracted at the start of the experiment. Brine containing 50,000 ppm chloride and naphtha (Stoddard's Solvent) were used as the water and oil phases, respectively. The core was mounted in a rubber sleeve which forms the inner lining of a brass cylinder. In this arrangement2 the rubber sleeve is forced against the core by applying pressure to water in the annular space between the rubber sleeve and the brass cylinder wall. The core is therefore sealed in rubber so that all fluids introduced at the input end of the core flow through the core. With this equipment the core may be easily removed for inspection and analysis. Also, other cores may be introduced for study with no extra time for preparation such as is required when plastic mounting is used. When pressure or conductivity measurements are desired at intermediate points along tile length of the core, the brass cylinder comprising the outer jacket of the core holder is cut into section, of the desired length. Each section is then made up as an individual unit with its own rubber sleeve (see Fig. 1). The individual units are then butted up against a ring of plastic or other insulating material which carries an electrical contact for resistivity measurements and an opening which can be used for the measurements of fluid pressures. The individual units are forced tightly against the plastic ring separators and held in place with several tie rods. Inlet and outlet end butts of the same diameter as the core and several inches in length are provided to control the introduction and withdrawal of fluids and to complete the arrangement for sealing the core within the rubber sleeve. Fluid flow is maintained either by applying pressure to the liquid confined in a reservoir or by the use of a gear pump. The latter is preferable where continuous flow at a moderate rate over a long time interval is desired since a small volume of liquid can be readily recirculated using filters to prevent plugging of the core. EXPERIMENTAL The oven-dried core is weighed and is then completely saturated with brine

Jan 1, 1950

All the Affiliated Student Societies report that the present college year promises to be a most successful one. The officers for this year, so far as reported, are as follows: TUFTS COLLEGE CHEMICAL SOCIETY President, CHESTER B. PIERCE Vice-president, JOHN H. SCHMUCK Secretary-treasurer, DANIEL A. PRESCOTT President, R. G. SATTERLEY Third vice-president, H. E. BLAKE First vice-president, LESTER VOCKE Secretary,-J. E. FLANIGAN Second vice-president, `V. J. KLINE Treasurer, PROF. JAMES FISHER, JR About 75 per cent. of the students are ex-service men, and most of them saw service in France.

Jan 12, 1919

A FEW nights ago while working in the small hours of the morning on a clarion message intended for this page, we repaired to the kitchen for coffee, as is our wont when the solitude of the late hour and the stillness of the night seduce thoughts from the job at hand to reminiscences. The thought occurred, as we slowly dissolved the instant coffee in boiling water, that this modern world of canned, frozen, and dried foods deprives us of some of the subtler and therefore more delightful pleasures of life. We recall the aroma of boiling coffee which greeted us on getting up in the morning before the ease of instant coffee deprived us of the aroma from the old coffees. This line of thinking led us to place the blame on our wife for taking the easy way of making coffee and thereby depriving us of some of our enjoyment. From thinking about our spouse, it is only a short step to thinking about "the boss" or bosses in general.

Jan 9, 1951

By D. Murgue

The circulation of air in underground workings is subject to a gradual and continuous reduction of its pressure, from intake to outlet, caused by the friction between it and the more or less rough and uneven surfaces of the passages. For comparison with the flow

Jan 1, 1894

Abbott, Franklin E. Adgate, Frank Aertsen, G. Aid, Kenneth Albert, H. I. Alexander, D. B. W. Allan, Wm. G. Allen, R. 0. Allen, Roy H. Aller, Mr. and Mrs. F. D. Altmayer, Maurice Ambler, Harry A. Ambrose, A. WV. Ammon, Mark A. Ammon, Mr. and Mrs. Robt. Anderson, George H. Anderson, Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Andros, S. 0. Appleby, W. R. Archer, R. S. Armitage, Paul Arobb, Alden D. Arthur, Walter Ashman, A. 0. Atkinson, R. H. Aupperle, J. A. Austin, D. F. Avery, G. E.

Jan 11, 1919

By Richard E. Chism

If internal commotion can be called life, the Mexicans have certainly lived more in the last seventy-five years than any other people. To the oppression of the Spanish viceroys succeeded the sanguinary tumults of the Revolution of Independence, after which the Supreme Congress bequeathed its heritage of uncertain power to the empire of Iturbide, the only one ever established by Americans upon American soil, with an American at its head. That shortlived reign mas followed by years of ceaseless, bloody, and, to the superficial observer, meaningless revolutions—the deeper political and ecclesiastical significance of which it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss. Then came foreign intervention, the ill-fated Austrian's brief supremacy, and the final triumph of the patriot cause under rugged old Benito Juarez, who crowned the victory of arms by a series of reforms breaking forever the temporal power of the Church and ushering in the calmer era which has lasted from the first accession of Diaz to the present day. During all those troublous times, the revolutionary ocean, that rolled so deeply over all other relics of Spanish dominion, had left almost unaltered the ancient laws of Spain, still lifting themselves above the tide, like landmarks of a flooded world. Many of these laws were obsolete ; some were absurdly inadequate to the demands

Jan 1, 1886