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By Reynold Q. Shotts

CHEMICAL methods, based on the relative rates of oxidation of fusain, bright coal, and dull coal by nitric acid, have been devised to determine these coal components.1-4 Results obtained by oxidation methods for fusain have been checked against results obtained from microscopic methods5, 6on duplicate samples of the same coals, but to the author's knowledge this has not been done for bright and dull coal components. For this reason it is not certain that the two methods of analysis identify essentially the same chemical or physical units. It would be highly desirable to see results of the application of both methods to duplicate samples, but in the absence of any such data the author has attacked the problem indirectly. From the U. S. Bureau of Mines samples were obtained of three Alabama coals which the USBM had analyzed optically and reported on over the past 30 years. These samples were subjected to analyses by oxidation rate methods. Results of this work, and comparisons with the USBM analyses, have been published." This was the first indirect approach to the problem. The present report attempts a second indirect approach by way of internal validation. By nitric oxidation samples of two whole coals were carefully analyzed for fusain, bright coal, and dull coal. One coal was analyzed in duplicate. Duplicate portions of each of the coals were divided into three density fractions by means of heavy liquids. A duplicate portion of one of the coals was divided by sieving into three size fractions. Each fraction was analyzed by oxidation and its percentage composition calculated in terms of fusain, bright coal, and dull coal. Because the weight percent of each fraction was known, a material balance calculation for the whole coal was also made. The resulting reconstituted analysis of the whole coal could be compared to that determined by direct analysis. In addition, specific reaction rate constants were determined for each component and for each whole coal or fraction. Arbitrary reactivity indexes were calculated by dividing by 100 the sum of the products of the percent of each component in the coal and its specific reaction rate constant. The resulting figure was an average reactivity index for each coal or fraction. Weighting the reactivity indexes for each fraction by the percent of the fraction in the coal gave a reactivity index for each whole coal which could be compared to that calculated directly from the whole coal analysis. If oxidation analyses really delineate definite physical entities within the coal, or even definite groups of similar entities, reconstituted analyses calculated from fraction analyses should check closely those made of the whole coal. It probably is true that optical methods identify and describe a greater variety of components than do chemical methods and that variations are wide in the appearance and quantity of those components identified optically. Chemical methods based upon differences in oxidation reaction rates would of necessity be less discriminating, as between similar components, than would optical methods. The procedures followed for oxidizing the samples, analyzing the residues, plotting and calculating the percentage of each component, and calculating its specific reaction rate constant have been fully described.'-' In brief the method originally proposed by Fuchs et al.1 for the determination of fusain consists of the oxidation of small samples of coal in boiling 8N nitric acid in a condenser-fitted flask. After boiling for periods of 1/2 to 4 hr, the unoxidized residue is filtered and washed. The washed residue is treated with normal sodium hydroxide, diluted, and allowed to stand for several hours. The resulting brown liquor is removed, and the filtered residue dried, weighed, ignited, and weighed again. The ash-free residue is expressed as a percent of original dry, ash-free coal. The percent residue is plotted against time, and the extrapolation of this line to zero time gives the percentage of dry ash-free fusain present in the original sample. The shape of the resulting time plots has been explained' by the assumption that they are the result of two different types of reaction, the first part representing a first order reaction with rate a func-

Jan 1, 1956

By C. A. Winkler, V. Hospadaruk

PREVIOUS papers from this laboratory have discussed the effect of chloride ion on the cathode polarization during electrodeposition of copper from copper sulphate-sulphuric acid electrolytes, in the presence and absence of gelatin. The steady state polarization'" was found to decrease sharply and pass through a minimum with increasing chloride ion concentration in the presence of gelatin. The minimum shifted to higher chloride ion concentrations and to higher polarization values with increase in current density or gelatin concentration, while an increase of temperature shifted the minimum toward lower halide concentrations and lower polarizations. Since these observations were made in acid-copper sulphate electrolytes that contained no other addend than gelatin, there was obviously the possibility that they were not applicable to deposition of copper from commercial electrolytes that contain a variety of other substances in relatively small amounts. In particular, it was of interest to determine whether the presence of arsenic, antimony, or bismuth in the electrolyte would materially alter the behavior. Experiments have now been made under a variety of conditions with systems containing these cations, and the results are summarized in the present paper. Experimental Polarization measurements were made at 24.5oC in a Haring cell in the manner described previously.' Electrolytes were made with doubly-distilled water, and contained 125 g per liter of copper sulphate and 100 g per liter sulphuric acid, both of reagent grade Eimer and Amend gelatin from a single stock was used throughout. Chloride ion was introduced as reagent grade sodium chloride, and arsenic, antimony, and bismuth by dissolving the chemically pure metal in hot concentrated sulphuric acid and adding appropriate amounts of the solutions to the electrolyte. Each cathode, of 1/16-in. thick rolled copper, was first etched in 40 pct nitric acid and washed thoroughly with distilled water. The surface was then brought to a standard condition4~9 by electrodeposition from an acid-copper sulphate electrolyte containing no gelatin, at a current density of 3 amp per sq dm for 30 min, followed by deposition at a current density of 2 amp per sq dm for l hr. As in previous studies, the cathode polarization eventually attained a steady-state value (15 to 75 min) such that further change in polarization did not exceed 0.2 mv per min. The polarization values recorded are those for the steady states. "Excess weights" were determined with arsenic and antimony present in the electrolyte, as the difference between the weights of the deposits obtained in the presence of these cations and those obtained in their absence, with the two cells connected in series. When gelatin was present along with the arsenic or antimony, it was also added to the electrolyte in the cell in series. Results and Discussion The results of the study are summarized in Figs. 1 to 6. From Fig. 1, top, it is evident that the presence of arsenic or antimony alone results in an increase of polarization, while bismuth alone causes a decrease. The presence of gelatin (25 mg per liter) rather drastically modifies all three cation effects, as indicated in the lower panels of the same figure. The addition of chloride ion, when no gelatin is present, causes comparable decreases in polarization in the presence of antimony and bismuth, but a relatively larger decrease when the electrolyte contains arsenic. It is interesting to note that the decrease in polarization brought about by addition of chloride when both arsenic and antimony are present parallels the behavior with arsenic alone, while the polarization in the electrolyte containing the cation mixture, without chloride added, corresponds to that for an electrolyte containing only the antimony cation. Similarly, the polarization at zero concentration of chloride in electrolyte containing arsenic and bismuth is that corresponding to an electrolyte containing arsenic alone. From Figs. 3a, 4a and 4b, it is clear that, in the presence of gelatin at a level of 25 mg per liter, the effect of chloride in the presence of arsenic and antimony, or a mixture of the two, becomes quite analogous to that observed in the absence of added cations. When both bismuth and gelatin are present (Fig. 5), the decrease in polarization with increased chloride concentration is virtually absent. This is perhaps a reflection of the large decrease in polarization brought about by the bismuth itself in the presence of gelatin. The shifts of the minimum in the polarization-chloride concentration curves brought about by changes of temperature (Fig. 3b), gelatin concentration (Figs. 3c and 4c) and current density (Fig. 3d) when the metal cations were present are all similar to the corresponding shifts observed in their absence." The approximately linear "excess weightv-anti-mony concentration relation recorded in Fig. 6 would seem to indicate that antimony is codeposited with copper to a considerable extent. On the other hand, only very limited amounts of arsenic appear to be adsorbed or codeposited.

Jan 1, 1954

By T. H. Aldrich

The Aldrich Mining Go. holds under lease from the Illinois Central R. R. Co. about 14,000 acres, in the east half of Township 12, Range 12 W., in Marion county, Alabama, and owns other lands, of which about 1,000 acres adjoin this leased tract, making a total area of about 15,000 acres, all of which is underlain by the coal-seam upon which the company is operating. This seam is nearly horizontal; and a ravine, diagonally crossing the tract, exposes the outcrop on either side for about 2 miles. The territory has been so divided that nearly the whole of it can be worked out by two collieries. The mines at Brilliant were opened in the fall of 1898, and shipments began in the following spring. The original plan was to furnish steam-coal for locomotives to the Illinois Central R. R. Co.; and upon this expectation the investment of capital was made. The field was entirely new; and the softness of the coal at the outcrop induced the belief that it could be very cheaply mined. A contract for the delivery of a large quantity of coal to the railroad was accordingly executed. But with the advance of' the entries to increasing distances from the outcrop, the coal proved so hard that it could no longer be drilled with a breast-auger; and the expense of mining became so great that the contract for cheap steam-coal had to be canceled. It became evident that the work must be done with machinery and explosives, if it could be profitably done at all. On the other hand, the excellent quality of this coal opened, at the same time, a possible market not specially contemplated at the outset—namely, that of a first-rate coal for domestic and general uses. Since no other deposit of such coal was known to exist on the line of the Illinois Central, or any other railroad

Jan 1, 1907

By R. S. Barneyback

Not much more is known about concrete today than was known to the Romans. For all the research only better tools have resulted to measure the quality of the materials that go into it." In this paper "some of the materials for lightweight concrete and their characteristics are considered and effort is made to indicate their effect on the end result — a structure of lightweight concrete." Lightweight concrete had noble beginnings. It is believed that the first specification for lightweight concrete was written by the Roman Emperor Hadrian in the early years of his reign, 117-138 AD. Hadrian, was an engineer by trade and an Emperor by adoption. He took considerable interest in the structures sponsored during his reign, even to the point of working out the structural details and preparing working drawings for some of the more prominent works in the vicinity of Rome. In order to reduce the dead weight of the 140 ft diam dome of the Pantheon he specified that the lightweight structural concrete members supporting this concrete and tile composite dome were to be fabricated from a concrete containing pumice and scoria. Still standing after 18 centuries of abuse, this structure has been described as the master effort of a great structural genius, the ultimate achievement of Roman engineering skill.' The Romans were the first to employ many concrete techniques we think of as modem innovations. Some unnamed superintendent noted that when a carefully measured amount of pigs blood was measured into each batch of concrete during mixing, the concrete was more durable and exhibited much better resistance to freezing and thawing climates. He no doubt, attributed this success to the appeasement of one of the gods who in return provided protection for the building containing this sacrificial offering in its walls. It is known today that the blood-entrained air in the concrete tends to make mixtures more workable, resistant to moisture penetration and more resistant to frost damage.

Jan 1, 1964

By Karl F. Peterson, H. K. Najarian, Robert E. Lund

R. E. Powers (Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh)—Several of the processing methods at the Josephtown smelter might well be considered by plants producing iron blast furnace sinter. In making blast furnace sinter the objectives are much the same as at Josephtown: To produce a strong yet porous agglomerate which has a size consist in a preferred range. The emphasis however is on production rate rather than on the size or other quality characteristics of the sinter. Therefore the technique is entirely different. Blast furnace sinter plants attempt to make their product in one pass with a minimum recirculating load and without sizing treatment after the sinter leaves the machines. Many plants are beginning to feel that more attention paid to quality characteristics would make the product a more desirable blast furnace material. The pelletizing of very fine material before placing it on the bed is not deliberately done at iron sinter plants, although the installed equipment sometimes gives a simila; action. Such pelletizing seems to be a promising way of accommodating the down-draft sintering Drocess to very fine materials. he recirculating load at Josephtown is extremely high. Two plants' producing blast furnace sinter from raw material of comparable size have a recirculating load of about 100 pct of production. At Josephtown it is notable that the size and the rate of feeding of return fines are under control. This is not the case in most blast furnace sinter plants. The sinter slicer appears to be a worthwhile aid in effecting such control. It is similar in action to rakes and plows used at a number of plants, but it has the advantage that the sinter dislodged is positively removed and not left to the inefficient action of a stationary grizzly screen. Blast furnace size specifications for sinter are not at present so rigid as the Josephtown specifications. If the sizing of blast furnace sinter does become important, then the Josephtown crushing practice, in which a large recirculating load is maintained on the crusher in order that minimum fines be produced, may be of interest. H. K. Najarian (authors' reply)—We note that Mr. Powers appreciates some points that we tried to emphasize in our paper as being of importance in making zinc sinter of good quality and which may well be applied to iron blast furnace sinter. Fig. 2 shows the pelletized nature of the feed going on to a Dwight-Lloyd type sintering machine in our plant. Practically, the entire feed consists of more or less rounded particles which permit more uniform air passage through the charge, while the larger particles in the charge roll on to the surface of the grate, which helps to keep the grate openings from being clogged by excessive fines. An agglomerated charge of this character may preferably be made by rolling action while being mixed in a rotating drum and wetted by water sprays to bind the fine particles together and give the charge the desired moisture content. From our observations of several iron ore and blast furnace flue dust sintering operations, we believe that if the fines from the sinter discharged from the machines were to be recirculated and agqlomerated with the new feed, not only sinter of better quality but larger capacity from the machines may be realized.

Jan 1, 1952

R. E. Powers (Mellon Institute of lndustrial Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh)—Several of the processing methods at the Josephtown smelter might well be considered by plants producing iron blast furnace sinter. In making blast furnace sinter the objectives are much the same as at Josephtown: To produce a strong yet porous agglomerate which has a size consist in a preferred range. The emphasis however is on production rate rather than on the size or other quality characteristics of the sinter. Therefore the technique is entirely different. Blast furnace sinter plants attempt to make their product in one pass with a minimum recirculating load and without sizing treatment after the sinter leaves the machines. Many plants are beginning to feel that more attention paid to quality characteristics would make the product a more desirable blast furnace material. The pelletizing of very fine material before placing it on the bed is not deliberately done at iron sinter plants, although the installed equipment sometimes gives a simila; action. Such pelletizing seems to be a promising way of accommodating the down-draft sintering Drocess to very fine materials. he recirculating load at Josephtown is extremely high. Two plants' producing blast furnace sinter from raw material of comparable size have a recirculating load of about 100 pct of production. At Josephtown it is notable that the size and the rate of feeding of return fines are under control. This is not the case in most blast furnace sinter plants. The sinter slicer appears to be a worthwhile aid in effecting such control. It is similar in action to rakes and plows used at a number of plants, but it has the advantage that the sinter dislodged is positively removed and not left to the inefficient action of a stationary grizzly screen. Blast furnace size specifications for sinter are not at present so rigid as the Josephtown specifications. If the sizing of blast furnace sinter does become important, then the Josephtown crushing practice, in which a large recirculating load is maintained on the crusher in order that minimum fines be produced, may be of interest. H. K. Najarian (authors' reply)—We note that Mr. Powers appreciates some points that we tried to emphasize in our paper as being of importance in making zinc sinter of good quality and which may well be applied to iron blast furnace sinter. Fig. 2 shows the pelletized nature of the feed going on to a Dwight-Lloyd type sintering machine in our plant. Practically, the entire feed consists of more ,or less rounded particles which permit more uniform air passage through the charge, while the larger particles in the charge roll on to the surface of the grate, which helps to keep the grate openings from being clogged by excessive fines. An agglomerated charge of this character may preferably be made by rolling action while being mixed in a rotating drum and wetted by water sprays to bind the fine particles together and give the charge the desired moisture content. From our observations of several iron ore and blast furnace flue dust sintering operations, we believe that if the fines from the sinter discharged from the machines were to be recirculated and agqlomerated with the new feed, not only sinter of better quality but larger capacity from the machines may be realized.

Jan 1, 1952

By G. H. Anderson

During an investigation of the copper-rich portion of the copper-silicon-iron system as part of an extensive research program on P.M.G. alloys, which was begun in 1937 in the research laboratory of the Phelps Dodge Corporation, it became apparent that the binary copper-silicon system below 7 per cent Si needed revision, therefore an investigation was undertaken. Both X-ray methods and microscopic technique were employed. Despite the many investigations that have the clarification of this system as their object, no two successive reports on the system have agreed in placement of the alpha-phase solubility limit, and uncertainty about the secondary phase first to appear has been voiced several times.3,4,5 It was therefore not surprising, when T. Isawa's6 and M. Okamoto's7 works were reported at the time we were finishing up our experimental work, to find essential disagreement between their results and ours. But when C. 5. Smith's latest work on the copper-silicon systema was published just as we were finishing our laboratory report, it was indeed gratifying to find that the latter's diagram and ours checked in all essential features, except the temperature of the peritectoid line above 830" C. Many attempts were made to retain the beta phase during the present investigation, but none was successful. Isawa,6 however, reports that he has been able to obtain X-ray photograms of the beta phase. The structure, he states, is body-centcrcd cubic with a lattiee constant of 2.848 ,&. at 7.2 per cent Si. Okamoto7 and Smith8 both use the designation Kappa for the hexagonal phase, and to avoid confusion this designation will he adhered to in the present paper. Preparation of Samples The alloys were melted in vacuum in a high-frequency furnace. from copper cathodes containing 99.98 per cent Cu, and specially refined silicon supplied by The Electro Metallurgical Co. This silicon is stated

Jan 1, 1940

By G. H. Anderson

During an investigation of the copper-rich portion of the copper-silicon-iron system as part of an extensive research program on P.M.G. alloys, which was begun in 1937 in the research laboratory of the Phelps Dodge Corporation, it became apparent that the binary copper-silicon system below 7 per cent Si needed revision, therefore an investigation was undertaken. Both X-ray methods and microscopic technique were employed. Despite the many investigations that have the clarification of this system as their object, no two successive reports on the system have agreed in placement of the alpha-phase solubility limit, and uncertainty about the secondary phase first to appear has been voiced several times.3,4,5 It was therefore not surprising, when T. Isawa's6 and M. Okamoto's7 works were reported at the time we were finishing up our experimental work, to find essential disagreement between their results and ours. But when C. 5. Smith's latest work on the copper-silicon systema was published just as we were finishing our laboratory report, it was indeed gratifying to find that the latter's diagram and ours checked in all essential features, except the temperature of the peritectoid line above 830" C. Many attempts were made to retain the beta phase during the present investigation, but none was successful. Isawa,6 however, reports that he has been able to obtain X-ray photograms of the beta phase. The structure, he states, is body-centcrcd cubic with a lattiee constant of 2.848 ,&. at 7.2 per cent Si. Okamoto7 and Smith8 both use the designation Kappa for the hexagonal phase, and to avoid confusion this designation will he adhered to in the present paper. Preparation of Samples The alloys were melted in vacuum in a high-frequency furnace. from copper cathodes containing 99.98 per cent Cu, and specially refined silicon supplied by The Electro Metallurgical Co. This silicon is stated

Jan 1, 1940

By Dorsey Lyon

I. INTRODUCTION THE utilization of hydro-electric power in electro-metallurgical indus¬tries, aside from purely mechanical operations, may he of two kinds. The electric energy may be used to supply the heat necessary for the per¬formance of the chemical reactions of a metallurgical process, or the elec¬trolytic action of a direct current may be employed for extraction of metals, either in a reduction process or a refining process. In discussing this subject, it is well to distinguish between established industries, which are producing metals and alloys at a profit by use of the electric current, and the many processes which are either still in the experimental stage or have not even passed the paper stage of development of a patent. That is, we consider electro-metallurgical industries as commercial operations which are now consuming large blocks of electric energy, while processes which are not in commercial operation are only prospective consumers. Also, owing to the difficulty and risk of any attempt to foresee the effect of the European war upon electro-metallurgical industries, we have felt obliged to disregard the war entirely, and state our opinions regardless of its existence.

Jan 8, 1915

By M. N. Qureshy, D. D. Sarma, B. K. Verma

Kolar Gold Fields are one of the best known gold deposits in South India where gold occurs in quartz reefs in Archaean hornblende schists and shows large variation in grade. The history of mining goes back to 18th century. The workings at Nundydroog Mines, chosen for Operations Research studies, have entered a depth of 2150 meters. The gold values in these mines were thought to be erratically distributed. However, by using 10540 samples from 49 blocks of ore, it is established that the gold value properties in inch- pennyweight units follow a two parameter log-normal distribution. Emperical relationships between arithmetic means and estimates based on peripheral and internal block values have been worked out using the estimator suggested by Krige (1951) instead of 't' estimator suggested by Sichel (1952). These relations can be used in arriving at block estimates with respective standard errors. There is no significant emperical relationship between depth and the grade of ore.

Jan 1, 1969

By A. J. de Witte

INTRODUCTION The importance of determining dips of subsurface formations in wells, especially in wildcat wells, is self-evident and need not be enlarged upon. Various dipmeter instruments have been described in technical literature1,2,3,4 over the years. The introduction of the continuous dip-meters3,4 has made the earlier types obsolete. Continuous dipmeter logs are run by at least two different major service companies. Included as part of the service are a limited number of dip calculations—usually 10—made at different levels from the log. Very frequently this is the total result of a dip survey. It is believed that dipmeter surveys would be of considerably more advantage if geologists and engineers were able to make their own calculations from the original records. Determination of dips from the dipmeter record starts with the correlation of three log curves taken at different sides of the borehole. It cannot be over-emphasized that the quality of the results hinges primarily on this correlation. Nobody should be better qualified to correlate logs than a subsurface geologist or field engineer. The next requirement is to have an easy yet accurate way of computing the dip from the correlated points. Service companies use a mechanical device for this purpose. Directions for a graphical method were given in a recent article by B. 0. Prescotts. This paper describes a different graphical technique which, in our experience, is simpler, faster and at least as accurate. The entire manipulation is carried out on the stereonet in a number of easy moves. The paper is divided into two parts. This first part contains the introductory sections and full explanation of the geometry involved. The second part reviews the reading of data from an actual field log and summarizes the practical rules for computation of dips, the whole process being illustrated by an example. Following the outlined procedure, one could calculate a good many levels in a relatively short time, thus being able in particular to check suspected anomalies such as fault zones or unconformities in as close detail as the log will permit. GENERAL EXPOSITION OF THE METHOD Prnciple of the Dipmeter The position of a plane in space is defined by the location of three points, not on a straight line. Referring to Fig. I, if a borehole traverses a bedding plane, we can determine the strike and dip of the bed by finding three points which are not in line along this plane. Such points as A, B, and C are obtained with the dipmeter. The device consists of three electrodes (or caliper arms)1, 2, and 3 spaced at 120 angles, as schematically indicated, whose readings are separately recorded (Curves 1, 11, 111, to the right). When electrode 1 passes the boundary of the bed, Curve I will kick, etc. From these curves, we know the relative distances of points A, B, C, measured along the axis of the hole. If A is at zero, then B and C are at levels d1 and d2 up the hole,

Jan 1, 1957

By William H. Hartwig

A paper by Rose1 has called attention to some of the problems of wetting-liquid relative permeability measurement. The premises and conclusions set forth by Rose, namely the applicability of the Hassler scheme of measurement, will be accepted. In addition, it will be concluded that certain electrical analog circuits can be used as a pattern for consideration of possible hydraulic systems of measurements. NEW SCHEME OF MEASUREMENT The object of this note is to propose a new scheme of wetting liquid relative permeability measurement. It is significantly different from those heretofore described, nonetheless it is based on Hassler concepts. The scheme is illustrated in Fig. 1 in terms of the corresponding electric circuit analog. It may be designated descriptively as the "comparison" method of wetting-liquid relative permeability measurement. In this circuit, R, represents the resistance of the core sample which is being studied for relative permeability characteristics, R represents a "standard" resistance, R represents the combined series resistance of the barrier pads, R R2 represent the combined series resistance of barrier pads in the manometer circuit, C, C represent the capacitance of the manometers, E is a constant voltage source, S is the switch or stopcock. The following conditions are imposed upon .the network: Rb » R, and R, R,» R, R, » R., and the condensers C, and C,

Jan 1, 1953

By F. M. Drake

IN this paper I propose to describe a plant which I lately erected for the Mount Stewart Lead and Silver Mining Company of Leadville, New South Wales, Australia. I am indebted to Mr. W. F. Burrow, of the Roads and Bridges Department of New South Wales, for the drawings which I present herewith, he having reduced and assembled them from my working drawings. The works are situated on a sloping hillside, but sufficient fall mas not available to have the furnace as high as desired, and at the same time have a good slag-tip and sufficient depth on the ore-floor to store a supply of ore and flux. The ore is delivered on the ore-floor (which is of the full width of the furnace-building, and extends back into the hill a distance of seventy feet) by two overhead tramways (not shown in the drawings), one on each side. From these the ore-mixture is made up on one side, while it is being taken to the furnace from the other. The fuel also is delivered by these tramways. The fluxes are stored on a floor directly at the back of the boiler and engine room. The boiler is a Cornish one, 6 feet 6 inches in diameter by 25 feet long. Its flue is 3 feet in diameter and does not contain Galloway tubes. The working-pressure is 40 pounds per square inch. The engine is an old-fashioned one, with a cylinder 16 inches in diameter by 30 inches stroke. Both the engine and boiler had been part of the plant of a defunct gold-mining company. They were very extravagant in their consumption of fuel. The blast is supplied by a rotary pressure-blower, of the Baker pattern, made in England. It has a capacity of 60 cubic feet per revolution. The furnace, which has several novel points, is shown in detail in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The jackets are of cast-iron, and are higher than those generally used. They are different, too, in that the feedwater inlet is through a hand-hole plate near the bottom. This plate is fastened to the jacket by stud-bolts, and is provided with a baffleplate, which prevents the cooling water from impinging against the inner plate. The outlet is by a goose-neck at the top, which dis-

Jan 1, 1893

By Charles H. Fulton

IT is assumed that the word "college" for the present purpose signifies technical school or technical department of a college or university. About ten or fifteen years ago, and more recently in some instances the contact between the technical school and the industry, as represented by the operating companies, was very limited. The school made no effort to place its graduates in the industry and the graduate's first position was obtained by his own or his friends' efforts; the friend often was a professor. The industries, or the operating companies, seemingly had little interest in the training of the technical graduates they employed or in seeking to discover their personal characteristics and fitness for the work. In the public mind there was little relation between technical training and industry. Such training was in the field of education; industry was in the field of business; and the interrelationship was not a matter of common knowledge or concern.

Jan 1, 1929

President MRS. REED W. HYDE 84 Mountain Ave. Summit, N. J. First Vice-President MRS, WILLIAM A. SCHEUCH Trent St. Great Kills, S. I., N. Y. Second Vice-President MRS. THORNS E. LLOYD Box B Netcong, N. J. Third Vice-President MRS. H.. T. HAMILTON 24 Ridge Rd. Summit, N. J.' Fourth. Vice-President MRS. R. A. PALLANCH 1342 Laird Ave. Salt Lake City, Utah

Jan 1, 1939

By G. W. Neighbor, M. S. Abrahams

The actice slip plane in InSb is found to be of the {111} type by using the method of two-tmce anulysis. Measurements of the rotation of the tensile axis with increasing plastic shear strain indicate that the tnacroscopic slip direction is a <110>. Recrystal-lization is first observed at a sheav strain of about 70 pct for a crystal deformed at a temperatzcre of 473° C and at a shear strain rate of 2.90 times 10- %ecc-I; the dislocation density corresponding to this value of the strain is 1 x 108 em-&apos;. At a shear strain of about 170 pct, the recrystallization process is complete. This appears to be the fimt time re-crystallization has heen observed in a semiconductor. V HE operation of the {Hi} glide plane in Ge was first noted by Gallagher.&apos; This finding was confirmed by Treuting who also extended the result to Si. Using X-ray techniques, Treuting3 demonstrated that the macroscopic slip direction in Ge was of the <110> type. The choice of the (111) <110> slip system in Ge is exected since in the diamond-type structure the {Ill7 plane is the plane of highest density and the <110> direction is the direction of closest packing.4 There is little reason to expect that the glide elements of InSb are different from those of Ge, since the zinc-blende structure characteristic of InSb is quite similar to the structure of Ge. With regard to InSb, Allen5 has indicated that the glide plane is the {111} type. There appears to be no quantitative determination of the glide direction, however. The present work was undertaken to establish both the glide plane and glide direction in InSb and also to see if recrystallization occurs at large shear strains. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Mechanical Deformation. The single crystals of InSb used in this investigation were deformed in uni-axial tension. The tensile axis of the specimens was [145] and the periphery was bounded by (111) and (321) planes as shown in Fig. 1. The metallographi-cally polished specimens were deformed in a dynamic atmosphere of He, using an Instron machine. The tensile tests were performed at temperatures in the range of 300°C to the melting point (525OC) and at shear strain-rates varying between 1.94 X 104 sec-&apos; to 1.94 x 103 sec-&apos;. Additional details concerning the preparation and deformation of the specimens have been presented previously.&apos; Analysis of the Glide Elements. The traces of the active slip plane in both (111) and (321) planes were analyzed according to the usual method of two-trace analysis." The macroscopic slip direction was determined by measuring the rotation of the tensile axis as a function of plastic strain,8 These measurements were made from Laue back-reflection X-ray photographs. The X-ray beam was perpendicular to the (111) plane. A given crystal was used for only one measurement of the rotation of the tensile axis after it had been strained to a predetermined value. Therefore, care was taken at all times to insure that the X-ray beam was parallel to the [Ill ] direction of all the samples. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Glide Plane. After 3.4 pct plastic shear-strain, at a temperature of 369°C and a shear strain-rate of 1.94 x 104 sec-&apos;, the slip traces on the (111) and (3.21) planes appear as in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), respectively. The results of an analysis of these glide markings demonstrate that the slip plane is (111). The operation of this plane is expected on the basis of the orientation of the specimen, since glide on this plane and in the [I011 direction will result in

Jan 1, 1962

By Benjamin L. Miller

The essential differences expressed by the different speakers participating in this symposium concern merely the relative emphasis placed on the subjects that are commonly included under the term "geophysics" and the branches of science that form the basis for investigations in this field. In order to appreciate the present situation it may be profitable to briefly refer to a few historical matters. One can find almost countless descriptions of geological phenomena long antedating the introduction of the title of "geology," which has been credited to Richard de Bury in the fourteenth century. Interpretations, when they were offered, were generally pure speculation. Only toward the close of the eighteenth century do we find theories developed as the result of observations and tested by additional observations. It is difficult to select and give proper credit to the individual who was particularly responsible for turning geology into a distinctly observational science. william Smith, who has been called the "Father of English Geology," certainly represents the period when observation was the only method used. As he traveled through the British Isles, "sometimes 10,000 miles in a year," he was continually making notes of his observations. Geikie says: "His plain, solid, matter of fact intellect never branched into theory or speculation, but occupied itself wholly in the observation of facts." William Smith, with others of his time, definitely laid firmly the foundations on which modern geology has been built. Field and laboratory observations can no longer be said to constitute the sole basis for geologic contributions but we have not laid aside the methods of Smith and his followers. It is folly to underestimate the fundamental value of the observational part of geology in the present. The objection to purely observational geology is that it is mainly qualitative and not quantitative, general and not specific. No one can deny this charge and probably there are few who do not welcome every method or process whereby we can put aside generalities for definite established values. Physics is the science that has particularly come to the aid of the geologist in this respect. Contributions of PhYsics It is not the intent of the writer to enumerate or to evaluate all of the contributions to geologic advance in the field of. physics. A few only are used for the purpose of illustration, When Clarence King, Director of the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, invited Ferdinand Zirkel to study 2500 thin sections of rocks collected from the western United States, the use of the microscope came into general use. Zirkel&apos;s report was published in 1876. He was not the first to use transmitted light for microscopic rock determination, some work having been done by Henry Clifton Sorby and others some years earlier, but he was the first to put into general use this method. We may well daim that this

Jan 1, 1946

By Benjamin L. Miller

The essential differences expressed by the different speakers participating in this symposium concern merely the relative emphasis placed on the subjects that are commonly included under the term "geophysics" and the branches of science that form the basis for investigations in this field. In order to appreciate the present situation it may be profitable to briefly refer to a few historical matters. One can find almost countless descriptions of geological phenomena long antedating the introduction of the title of "geology," which has been credited to Richard de Bury in the fourteenth century. Interpretations, when they were offered, were generally pure speculation. Only toward the close of the eighteenth century do we find theories developed as the result of observations and tested by additional observations. It is difficult to select and give proper credit to the individual who was particularly responsible for turning geology into a distinctly observational science. william Smith, who has been called the "Father of English Geology," certainly represents the period when observation was the only method used. As he traveled through the British Isles, "sometimes 10,000 miles in a year," he was continually making notes of his observations. Geikie says: "His plain, solid, matter of fact intellect never branched into theory or speculation, but occupied itself wholly in the observation of facts." William Smith, with others of his time, definitely laid firmly the foundations on which modern geology has been built. Field and laboratory observations can no longer be said to constitute the sole basis for geologic contributions but we have not laid aside the methods of Smith and his followers. It is folly to underestimate the fundamental value of the observational part of geology in the present. The objection to purely observational geology is that it is mainly qualitative and not quantitative, general and not specific. No one can deny this charge and probably there are few who do not welcome every method or process whereby we can put aside generalities for definite established values. Physics is the science that has particularly come to the aid of the geologist in this respect. Contributions of PhYsics It is not the intent of the writer to enumerate or to evaluate all of the contributions to geologic advance in the field of. physics. A few only are used for the purpose of illustration, When Clarence King, Director of the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, invited Ferdinand Zirkel to study 2500 thin sections of rocks collected from the western United States, the use of the microscope came into general use. Zirkel&apos;s report was published in 1876. He was not the first to use transmitted light for microscopic rock determination, some work having been done by Henry Clifton Sorby and others some years earlier, but he was the first to put into general use this method. We may well daim that this

Jan 1, 1946

By Thomas M. Drown

I DESIRE to communicate to the Institute the results of a few analyses which bear on the condition of carbon in gray and white iron. These analyses were made in the course of an investigation, now in progress, of the chemical composition of "chilling" irons. It will be remembered that Bell says he found no material difference in the amount and condition of carbon in gray and white pig iron made at the Clarence furnace, in England, and he therefore refers the difference in color and appearance in these two varieties of iron to the size of the particles of graphite. I quote from his "Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting:" "The inference I would draw from the information afforded by these analyses is, that the condition of iron in respect to its so-called &apos;richness&apos; is, within certain limits, entirely independent of its chemical constitution.. .. In the fluid state, I conceive the carbon, so taken up, confers upon the iron the property of fusion much below the temperature at which the pure metal melts, and the carbon itself may be regarded as dissolved in the iron. If, during the process of manufacture, the pig metal has been formed at a low temperature, consolidation, I imagine, takes place under such circumstances that the crystals are so minute, and the carbon which is separated assumes the uncombined or graphitic form in particles so minute as to be invisible, and, in consequence, the iron is white. If, on the other hand, the furnace is working at a very high temperature, the intensely heated iron crystallizes with large facets, upon which the extruded carbon assumes the condition of distinct plates or flakes. Should the temperature be less intense, these crystals are of smaller dimensions, and the separated carbon is less conspicuous, and, as the temperature of the furnace declines, the crystals decrease in size, as do the flakes of carbon, until both disappear in white iron.. .. Returning, then, to temperature as the cause of differences in quality of pig iron, the &apos;chilling&apos; of gray metal, and its conversion into white, may be regarded as the effect of preventing, by rapid cooling, the formation

The first mention of the mining and use of coal in the Pittsburgh district refers to the mine under Duquesne Heights that furnished coal for the garrison at the fort at Pittsburgh in 1760. Coal had been dug and used as fuel just outside of Brownsville, Fayette county, in 1759, but this was not a regular mine as the opening was in an outcropping. Maps of Ohio in 1770 showed "Cole Mines" at various points. The Penns purchased all the coal south of Kittanning in southwestern Pennsylvania from the Chiefs of the Six Nations for a reported price of $10,000. During the Revolution, coal from Herron Hill, Mincrsville, and Coal Hill, all within the present city limits, was used in Pittsburgh. There is today one custom pit opened in Coal Hill (Duquesne Heights). The first steam engine was set up in Pittsburgh in 1794 and used coal as fuel. The first mine in the Youghiogheny gas district was opened in 1796. In 1803, the first shipment of coal by water was made from Pittsburgh down the Ohio river and landed at Philadelphia, where it sold for approximately $9.50 per ton. The mines along the Monongahela were naturally the first to be opened. With the completion of locks and dams in 1844, permitting slack-water navigation, the industry began to thrive. The No. 8 field of Ohio and the Fairmont region of northern West Virginia were opened in the period 1840 to 1855. From that time on there has been a continuous development of the coal rcsources of this district, until at present productive capacity is enough to supply 30 per cent. of the country&apos;s needs of bituminous coal. The original method of working the Pittsburgh seam was to drive under cover at some easily accessible point on the outcrop with a single entry, usually 1½ yd. wide. Rooms or gangways were turned to the right and left from this entry and ventilation was usually poor and inade-

Jan 1, 1927