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By G. Alfano

We have investigated the breakage actions of solid particles observed in a new generation fluid energy micronizer being set up at our laboratories. The attention has been focussed in particular on breakage caused by interparticle collision, particle impact against a fixed surface, interparticle attrition and particle against wall of jet mill attrition. We have also studied the influence of grain size distribution, maximum particle size, flow rate and characteristics of the solid to be processed, as well as of flow rate and pressure of injected air on the above mechanism. Lastly, the operating parameters of a dynamic air classifier in closed circuit with the micronizer for recovering the fine fraction and automatically recycling the oversize, have been optimized. The findings of this investigation have been used to design, build and fine tune a micronizer capable of controlling the top size of a product having average particle size that meets market requirements for fine powders, while keeping power consumption relatively low.

Jan 1, 2014

By H. T. Ozkahraman

It is important to know the breakage mechanism in materials since this knowledge influences the results of subsequent grinding operations. There are two distinct failure mechanisms in breakage: one is tensile micro crack generation at low stresses, which leads to macroscopic failure by disintegration, and the other is formation of shear zones under heavier dynamic impact forces, which generates more fines as seen in crush zones in blasting. Tensile fracturing simply breaks the material into fragments. It is seen as the disintegration of the specimen into two or more separate fragments. This happens under the absence of lateral stresses and the material is free to expand. On the other hand, compressive-shear breakage produces finer fragments due to shear stresses. The first mechanism is observed in laboratory tensile and bending strength tests and the second mechanism is observed both in laboratory brittleness tests and in situ blasting operations under dynamic impact forces. The friability of rocks and ores can be determined by a brittleness test. A test apparatus to determine the friability value has been designed to suit limestone strength characteristics used in cement production. The friability and stored strain energy values of barite, marble, limestone and bauxite have been determined and compared with the corresponding Bond work index (Wi) and grindability index (G) of these materials. The physico-mechanical properties of the tested materials have also been determined to investigate their effect on friability and grinding. The relationships obtained between the indices were in surprisingly good agreement, with high correlations (0.99 and 0.97). The Bond work index and grindability index can therefore be estimated from the friability value, which can be determined more rapidly than the Bond test. But for certain rock types such as andesites the relationships does not hold. Key words: comminution, tensile stress, shear forces, brittleness test, strain energy.

Jan 1, 2010

This paper describes the characteristics of blasting which set it apart from other methods of breaking rock. The mechanism of rock breakage and the influence of rock proper- ties are then discussed. The strain and fragmentation produced by a cylindrical charge does not change once the charge is longer than 16 blasthole diameters. The influence of bench geometry, charge length and drill diameter are then examined. It is shown that spherical charges have advantages over long slender cylindrical charges. By selection of the appropriate drill diameter, explosive and charge configuration the optimum blasting practice for a given rock to give suitable fragmentation and muckpile profile for sub- sequent handling can be found. The fragmentat- ion depends not only on rock and explosive properties but also on the pattern which dictates how effectively the cracking is utilised. The size distribution of the fragments is given by the Rosin - Rammler equation. Undesirable cracking of the rock in the final wall can be controlled by the careful design of blasts as they approach the final wall. Finally, it is concluded that because of the distance to which blasting can fracture and then displace rock it is suited for the breakage of large volumes of rock.

Jan 1, 1978

By Richard Hogg, Heechan Cho

Investigations of long-time grinding of fine quartz (to about 80% passing 0.35 pm) in a 0.6 liter stirred-media mill are described. Breakage rates and primary breakage distributions have been determined based on extensive characterization of the ground products by laser scattering/diffraction and gas adsorption. The results indicate that, while there is qualitative similarity between the breakage parameters for ultrafine and conventional (coarse) grinding, there are important, quantitative differences. In particular, it is found that primary breakage distributions become significantly narrower in the submicron sizes. The trend can be described using double-truncated log-normal distributions in which both a maximum (breaking) size and a grind limit are specified. The breakage distributions become progressively narrower as the size being broken becomes finer. Breakage rates follow a typical, consistent pattern in which the rate decreases with size according to a simple power law. Further decrease in the rates seems to occur after very long grinding times when the entire mill contents become finer than about 1µm. The effect is explained as a result of changes in the rate/size relationship in the submicron range.

Jan 1, 1995

By I. Shah, L. G. Austin

A method for quantitative investigation of the phenomena involved in fine grinding of materials that follows the changes in the breakage rates of fine particles has been presented. For relatively hard, brittle, non-coating material like quartz, the slowing down effect of breakage rates starts to be significant at relatively coarse sizes, which goes often undetected in closed circuit grinding systems, producing relatively coarse product, say P80=75µm However, for fine grinding systems, as the -10µm fractions begin to build-up, and classification becomes more difficult, the build-up of fine sizes causes a slowing down effect Compounding this problem is the difficulty of obtaining accurate cumulative weight size distributions in the fine size region.

Jan 1, 1983

By M. G. Wimberger

The Merensky Reef zone, as developed on Impala Platinum?s Rustenburg Operations, displays a gradational mineralized zone, with grades decreasing from the Merensky Pegmatoid Unit into the footwall and hanging wall. A system of identifying a manageable method of defining the mining cut is introduced, termed the grade profile attenuation cut-off grade. Although horizontal grade selectivity is not applied in the mining of the Merensky Reef zone, low extraction of the orebody, due to manageable and non-manageable factors, can contribute to a reduction in revenue, even losses, due to fixed cost contributions in the mining and beneficiation of the ore. A model is proposed that integrates all variables affecting the revenue of the mining operation, including the grade profile attenuation cut-off grade, the extraction factors, commodity prices and exchange rates, utilizing numerical simulation techniques in a PC-based environment. A breakeven extraction factor for a specific cut-off grade is delivered for a range of market conditions. The breakeven extraction factor is a useful guide when designing mining layouts in structurally complex and low metal content areas. Incorporating distribution functions for individual commodity prices and exchange rates into the model provides mineral resource managers with a risk profile for individual mining areas. Shaft areas have varying grade profiles and each area should have individual models run, to prevent generalizations being made about acceptable risk levels on mining areas.

Jan 1, 2004

By Homer W. Riley, C S. Jenkins

SMALL power-driven, toothed, cast-iron rolls were used first to break anthracite in 1844. Prior to that time, men with hammers, who stood on perforated cast-iron- plates, .broke the large lumps into commercial sizes. In order to convert run-of-mine into the various sizes required by the anthracite industry, about 20 million tons must be broken, annually, [ ] into smaller sizes. This phase of anthracite preparation is of major importance, because the degradation accompanying reduction in coal sizes should be kept at a minimum. The exclusive use of toothed rolls for that purpose indicates that comminution by rolls is the best solution of the problem. Many improvements have been made in tool design, but the most important was a reduction of the peripheral speed of the rolls from 1000 to 300 ft. per minute. The higher speed was based upon and approximated the velocity of a falling piece of coal when it entered the rolls. Exhaustive roll tests at the slower speed showed that the same size reduction could be affected with less degradation. The adoption, there- fore, of slow-speed, compound geared rolls, especially for breaking the

Jan 1, 1943

By Homer W. Riley

ANTHRACITE SMALL power-driven, toothed, cast-iron rolls were used first to break anthracite in 1844. Prior to that time, men with hammers, who stood on perforated cast-iron plates, broke the large lumps into commercial sizes. In order to convert run-of-mine into the various sizes required by the anthracite industry, about 20 million tons must be broken, annually, into smaller sizes. This phase of anthracite preparation is of major importance, because the degradation accompanying reduction in coal sizes should be kept at a minimum. The exclusive use of toothed rolls for that purpose indicates that comminution by rolls is the best solution of the problem. Many improvements have been made in tooth design, but the most important was a reduction of the peripheral speed of the rolls from 1000 to 300 ft. per minute. The higher speed was based upon and approximated the velocity of a falling piece of coal when it entered the rolls, Exhaustive roll tests at the slower speed showed that the same size reduction could be affected with less degradation. The adoption, therefore, of slow-speed, compound geared rolls, especially for breaking the larger sizes, became quite general after 1912. A high-speed roll is shown in Fig. 1 and a slow-speed roll in Fig. 2. Anthracite Crushing Problems.-Crushing anthracite presents the problem of selecting a series of rolls that will produce the greatest percentage of the prepared sizes of nut and over. The size distributions to be expected are shown in Table 1. Coal breaking and crushing practices in anthracite breakers involve the use of equipment for comminuting the following classes of material: 1. Run-of-mine-plus 6 ½ -in. coal. 2. Sized coal-steamboat, broken, egg, stove, nut, and pea. 3. Flat coal--coal that is flat and hence not suitable for the market. 4. Bone--a piece of laminated coal and slate, crushed for the purpose of reclaiming the coal. 5. Breaker refuse, reduced to a size suitable for flushing into a mine for back-filling purposes.

Jan 1, 1950

By J. D. McClung

INTRODUCTION The ever increasing demand for coal sues that meet exacting specifications has made necessary the installation of thousands of dollars worth of crushing equipment by the coal industry. At one time the operator at- tempted to recover as much lump as possible but today he is confronted with the necessity of crushing to facilitate the mechanical cleaning process and to meet the demand for a variety of uniform sizes. As a matter of fact, about 65 percent of the coal mined in the United States today goes through preparation plants where it is crushed and cleaned. One becomes more aware of the importance of the art of comminution when it is realized that practically all of the operations in mining are involved in comminution in one way or another. Whether the coal is mined conventionally or by continuous miners it is separated from the solid by a breaking, ripping or milling action which essentially amounts to a comminution operation. Even degradation resulting from material handling from the mine working face to the preparation plant might in a broad sense be so classified, Then of course crushing is usually necessary in the plant before the coal is ready to be marketed. THEORY Despite the various comminution operations there is a lack of satisfac- tory information concerning the fundamentals of crushing and their relation to the variable factors associated with the operation. There are certain laws and theories on mechanical reduction, such as those of Rittinger, Kick and Bond that are helpful and useful. The difficulty in developing exact mathematical relationships for specific crusher applications is due to the many variable physical characteristics found in coal. Hardness, as measured by the Hardgrove grindability index, is one parameter that has been used for years to determine the resistance of coal to comminution. While the coal properties as measured by grindability are complex, recent work has shown that a high correlation exists between the grindability of some coals and their petrographic analysis. Early research on the hardness of petrographic entities from an Illinois coal2 demonstrated that durain was the hardest constituent followed by clarain, vitrain and very soft fusain. Other research demonstrated that, for different size fractions of the same coal, a wide variation in hardness commonly exists. For example, the fines in about half of 39 coals studied were softer than their corresponding coarse sues while most of the remaining coals were uniformly hard in all sizes. A few coals contained fines which were harder than their coarser constituents. These variations in hardness give insight into the heterogeneous nature of coal.

Jan 1, 1968

By William D. Mayercheck

Introduction of continuous mining machines in the late 1940s created a new production bottleneck in room-and-pillar sections-the shuttle car. While continuous miners could cut and load coal at a nearly constant rate, the mining sequence was repeatedly interrupted as fully loaded shuttle cars changed places with empty ones. This wait-for-the-shuttle delay period forced the coal industry to reassess the shuttle's batch-type procedure with an eve toward continuous haulage systems that would allow uninterrupted coal flow from face to portal.

Jan 7, 1979

By David Wright, Jerome Chamfray, Anthony Harding, Brian Boye

Conway’s Law states that unless we intentionally design automation tools around what we need, we will simply replicate our existing processes. While we may achieve some savings this way, there is an opportunity for greater benefits if we re-imagine the way we, as an industry, perform design. This paper examines current technology and shows how even small departures from merely encoding what we currently do could reap significant benefits. From these examples a framework is developed for a new and innovative approach tvo automation that will allow us to design more quickly, to a higher quality, and communicate outcomes more effectively.

Dec 1, 2022

By J. Bouchard, M. Levesque, D. Georges-Filteau, P. Radziszewski, G. LeBlanc

"Grinding mills are infamous for their extremely low energy efficiency. This paper reports the results of an investigation that characterized energy outputs in industrial grinding mill circuits. It identifies and discusses the potential for recovering energy from grinding circuits. Agnico-Eagle Goldex Division, Mine Canadian Malartic, and New Gold New Afton Mine participated in the study by providing operating data for three semi-autogenous grinding mills and four ball mills. Results showed that on average, 79% of the supplied electrical energy was converted to heat absorbed by the slurry, 8% was lost through the drive system, and approximately 2% was transmitted to the ambient air. Only 9% of the input energy was actually used for grinding. The remaining 91%—wasted as heat—could potentially be recovered using suitable technologies or integrated energy management systems. This topic remains to be further investigated. ¦ KEYWORDS Comminution processes, Energy recovery potential, Grinding mills RÉSUMÉ Les broyeurs sont tristement célèbres pour leur rendement énergétique médiocre. Cet article présente les résultats d’une étude qui caractérise les rendements énergétiques des circuits industriels de broyage et examine les possibilités de récupération d’énergie dans les circuits de broyage. La mine Goldex d’Agnico Eagle, Mine Canadian Malartic et la mine New Afton de New Gold ont participé à l’étude en fournissant des données de fonctionnement pour trois broyeurs semi-autogènes et quatre broyeurs à boulets. Les résultats montrent qu’en moyenne 79 % de l’énergie électrique fournie sont convertis en chaleur absorbée par la pulpe, 8 % sont perdus dans le système d’entraînement et environ 2 % sont dispersés dans l’air ambiant. Seuls 9 % de l’énergie primaire sont, de fait, utilisés pour le broyage ; les 91 % restants (perdus sous forme de chaleur) peuvent potentiellement être récupérés à l’aide de technologies adaptées ou intégrées dans des systèmes de gestion de l’énergie. Cette question demeure toutefois ouverte. ¦ MOTS CLÉS broyeurs, potentiel de récupération de l’énergie, procédés de comminution INTRODUCTION Grinding is largely recognized as a very inefficient process; energy efficiency estimates range from < 1 to 2% (Fuerstenau & Abouzeid, 2002; Tromans & Meech, 2002, 2004) when comparing the input energy to that required for generating new mineral surfaces. Criticizing an “ill definition of the reference for the output energy,” Fuerstenau and Abouzeid (2002) proposed a “more meaningful baseline” would be “the energy for producing new surface area by the ¬mens.” Based on this reference, they concluded that “the ball mill is reasonably efficient energetically,” exhibiting an efficiency of approximately 15% for quartz."

Jan 1, 2019

By E. Pallumbo, N. Szwedska, R. Asselin

"This paper highlights the results of collaboration between geology, mining and mineral processing teams during the restart of the North American Lithium Project, located near La Corne, Quebec, Canada. This collaboration was central in ensuring a cross discipline harmonization of design parameters and key inputs, all of which allowed for the development of an optimized life of mine plan suited to the particular needs of the operation.INTRODUCTION In July 2016, North American Lithium Inc. (NAL) began the process of restarting operations at the former Quebec Lithium Mine, located in the municipality of La Corne, Quebec, Canada. The North American Lithium Project (the Project) as it is known today, is the latest chapter in the history of this property. In order to provide a robust foundation for the project, multidisciplinary collaboration was instituted between the geology, mining and metallurgy teams. Despite the intrinsic link between these departments, in many instances their work is completed separate from one another; in silos. This collaboration highlighted specific drivers in the mining value chain that could be exploited to ensure that a saleable product could be produced effectively. This paper explores some of the concepts and strategies that were developed during the feasibility study that supported the project restart (excerpts from the study technical report have been used throughout this paper). PROJECT HISTORY In 1942, prospectors identified the presence of numerous spodumene-bearing pegmatite dykes on the Property. This led to additional interest and exploration drilling campaigns. In 1955, Quebec Lithium Corp. (QLC), who had acquired the property, began construction of an underground mine with mill facilities located on the surface. Operations began the following year at a production rate of 1,100 tonnes per day. A historical cross-section view of the underground mine is shown in Figure 1. In 1959, QLC began the construction of an on-site lithium refinery to produce lithium hydroxide. The refinery was finally operational by 1963. Mining and processing operations continued until 1966 when activities were halted due to a labour dispute. The property was sold and a few years later attempts to resume production were unsuccessful. Property ownership changed several times again until being acquired by Cambior in 1987. In the early 1990’s the existing mine and mill facilities were sold and the mine site rehabilitated"

Jan 1, 2019

By M. A. Roche

AST fall over half a million tons of ore and rock were broken in one blast at the open pit of the Hudson Bay Mining & Smelting Company&apos;s operation, at Flin Flon, Manitoba. The following particulars of the blast, and details of the preparatory work, indicate how an operation of this scope is carried out. The data given, in essentially the present form, were first published by The Canadian Mining Journal. The area blasted was 150 ft. wide and about 700 ft. long. A total of 123 tons of 50 per cent forcite gelatin, in 5 by 16-in. cartridges, was used for the charge. Drilling for the blast was started on May 29, and was completed late in August, requiring 1297 machine shifts for drilling only. Total footage drilled for the shot was over 5 miles of 6-in. hole. The main blast consisted of 232 holes spaced on 17.5-ft.

Jan 1, 1934

By F. S. McNicholas, R. L. Healy

NOTEWORTHY because of the amount of explosives used, the tonnage broken, and the wide range involved both vertically and laterally, was a large underground blast fired last November at the Hidden Creek mine, Anyox, B. C. Stoping methods and mining prac¬tices at the Hidden Creek mine have previously been described in the technical press. Earlier mining methods employed included shrinkage stoping, glory-holing, and "spiral" stoping. The latter especially has been a practice peculiar to the Granby company, having been used for years at its Phoenix mines and later at the Anyox property where conditions as to size of orebodies and strength of ground both in the ore and walls were similar. These methods all leave tremendous excavations supported at key points by pillars and braces that may only be safely mined by big blasts.

Jan 1, 1935

By M. K. Boateng, K. Awuah-Offei

"Language barrier in a workplace affects workers’ productivity and safety. The objectives of this paper are to: (1) review the various approaches for breaking language barriers among miners; and (2) analyze the costs and benefits of these approaches, and make recommendations on the way forward. The authors achieve these objectives by reviewing the current approaches in breaking language barriers among miners. The review reveals that some of these approaches can be expensive with less benefits. Thus, it is concluded that mining companies should carefully select the optimal approach to break language barrier. INTRODUCTION Multi-national mining companies have expanded their operations into non-traditional mining destinations to grow and meet market expectations. For instance, Newmont Mining Corporation has about 14 operations and projects located in Africa, Asia, Australia and America (Newmont Mining Corporation Operations and Projects, 2015). Similarly, Freeport-McMoRan operates about 14 mines in North America, South America, Southern Asia, and Africa (Freeport-McMoRan Inc., 2015). Some mining companies have also attracted expatriate workers into their workforce. For example, Ma’aden, the Saudi Arabian mining company, in its 2013 annual report states that 34% of its total employees are expatriates (Ma'aden, 2013). Expatriates constitute a key source of skilled labor and facilitate skill transfer. The success of many international operations relies greatly on expatriate performance (Erbacher, D'Netto & Espana, 2006). Even companies that do not expand their operations into other foreign countries still have to deal with language barriers due to changing language demography of the country and the areas from which labor is sourced. For example, the language composition of the workforce and languages used in South African mines is diverse with miners proficient in Afrikaans, English, Zulu, Xhosa and others to varying degrees (Research Focus (Pty) Ltd, 2011). As a result of these trends, most mines today operate with a multinational workforce. This means cultural differences, including language barriers, exist among the miners. Marschan-Piekkari, Welch and Welch (1999) emphasize the fact that language problems become prominent as companies internationalize and grow their operations into more countries. According to a survey by Forbes, language barrier affects operations. For example, business owners acknowledge that language proficiency may promote a safer work environment (Rubin, 2011). A research has shown that language and cultural barriers in a workplace contributes to reducing workers’ productivity, increasing accidents, and hurts employers’ ability to recruit, hire and retain workers (Morris, 2002). Hence, mines are making efforts to break language barriers in their operating environments. Ma’aden, for instance reported in 2013 that 1,506 of its employees received training in English as a second language (Ma'aden, 2013)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Natasha A. Essar

Nevsun Resources Ltd. Bisha Mine Project is a gold and base metal development project in the Gash Barka region of west-central Eritrea. The project has the potential to be one of the largest industrial developments in the country, and Eritreans have no experience in modern mining. Nevsun recognized early that the success of the Bisha Project would require meaningful consultation and engagement with all levels of Eritrean society. Meaningful engagement required not only full disclosure, but also capacity building from government officials at all levels to other stakeholders who live in the nearby communities. This paper describes the approach used to develop capacity and to help introduce a modern mining culture in a country without previous experience in mining.

May 1, 2007

By Godwin Beene

During recent years, copper and acid production from Nkana Smelter has formed a significant proportion of ZCCM&apos;s total output, but a number of problems affecting the smelter over the last decade have only been recently overcome. This paper discusses recent developments in the smelting practice, highlighting some of the operational problems experienced and associated solutions. The smelter performance over the decade is discussed and the innovations in the smelting technology employed to sustain production in the wake of limited re-capitalization are dealt with in detail.

Jan 1, 1999

By Joseph A. Meyers, Michael D. Stokes

This paper will focus on the use of Deflagrating Cartridges for tunnel excavation in Midtown Manhattan at Grand Central and 42nd Street Station, where the excavation has challenges due to the proximity of existing underground infrastructure and a contract blasting restriction. Skanska and FDNY’s collaborative teamwork successfully used deflagrating cartridges and gathered vibration data to properly predict ground vibrations on nearby infrastructure. In cities like Manhattan, conventional blasting excavation methods can be constrained or restricted entirely by the risk of damage to nearby structures, utilities, and disruption to everyday life on the streets. The introduction of Deflagrating Cartridges to the project offered a promising solution to mechanical excavation being used by providing controlled, precise, and deflagrating rock breaking capabilities that minimized disturbance to the above items. This technology minimizes the risk of vibration damage to preexisting infrastructure due to its reduced velocity of deflagration, making it useful for the location of our project. The team's approach involved numerous test shots to help determine the appropriate loading and timing sequence, as well as to collect data to properly be able to predict vibration on the adjacent structures. The successful application of deflagrating cartridges in the Grand Central area demonstrates their usefulness in logistically challenging underground excavation projects in urban cities. Through careful coordination and innovative use of this technology, the team was able to navigate the complexities of working near existing infrastructure while maintaining high levels of safety and productivity. Overall, our paper will speak to the importance of new technologies like deflagrating cartridges for usage in urban environments while minimizing disruption to the world above and below, the technology of these products, and the outcomes of our vibration data collection. By embracing these advancements, construction teams, owners, and other agencies can effectively address the unique challenges posed by projects in densely populated areas, while maintaining safety and productivity.

Jan 21, 2025

By N. Pajunen, R. Mäkikoskela

"The current state of environment has been achieved by acting linearly. At the same time, we know that transition towards circular economy cannot be made the same way that we have used to, trusting only a market economy and economic growth. Environmental improvements have been promoted, some progress has been made, but major steps towards sustainability have not been taken. Industry is now facing significant change, from process related environmental thinking to product-based environmental thinking.Engineers make decisions which have lifelong influence and even longer on environment and society. Material engineers in case of saving natural resources and increasing material cycle, have an important role to play in the transition towards sustainability. Best knowledge of minerals and materials is in the material development phase. If we want to increase the cycle of different materials, it is vital to make decisions towards circular economy in early phase of product´s life cycle.The target of this study is to promote circular economy; to increase material efficiency; to save natural resources; and to extend product lifecycles in process industry via product design and material development. In this study we have a new kind of cooperation. We combine two disciplines, engineering science and fine arts. We promote sustainability via breaking out the silos. We bring the cyclic artistic thinking into engineering science and environmental research. The new research combination makes the existing information visible in a new way, and it will change attitudes and ways to act by means other than traditional linear rationality.We have tested the new working method via the industrial case study with the chosen product: the sandwich panel of construction industry. The target of the study was to create something new from the chosen product with artistic thinking. The working method will be presented in this paper."

Jan 1, 2016