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TULSA SECTION At the smoker concluding the two day meeting of the Tulsa section of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Tulsa, Okla., Feb. 26, 1919, Dr. Willis T. Lee, the new head of the Geological Department of the University of Oklahoma, was introduced to the assembled geologists and mining engineers. Dr. Lee requested that the geologists and engineers who were making a specialty of petroleum geology assist him in giving a good course in practical oil geology in the Geological Department of the University. After a motion offering the services of all present in giving lectures on their special subjects had been adopted, Dr. Perrine of Hutchinson, Kans., named the geologists who were pledged to give lectures in Dr. Lee's course. The students in geology at Norman are assured of the latest information regarding practical work in petroleum geology and will have the inspiration derived from contact with men who are actually at work upon the problems which they are studying. Dr. Lee and President Brooks of the University are to be congratulated upon the introduction of this .method of instruction. The plan thus put into operation is similar to the graduate system of coaching in athletics followed at many of the large universities; what is good for instruction in athletics should also prove good for instruction in applied geology.

Jan 6, 1919

By C. A. Stewart

I. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL STATEMENT OF RESULTS. The field-work upon which this paper is based was done in the summer of 1910, and was made possible by the courtesy of the Imperial Copper Co., which gave me access to its property. For their kindness in this respect I wish to express my thanks to W. F. Staunton and Meade Goodloe. Moreover,. B. F. Smith and G. B. Gentry, mining engineers in the employ of the company, gave invaluable assistance by placing maps,. etc., at my disposal, and by discussing with me the problems of the district; and it is a great pleasure to acknowledge this indebtedness to them. In order that the significance of some of the details that follow may be better appreciated at first reading, a general outline of the conclusions reached is given here. In the Silverbell mining-district a series of Palaeozoic limestone blocks is completely surrounded by post-Palaeozoic igneous rocks, intruded in the following order: alaskite, alaskite-porphyry, biotite-granite, andesite, and quartz-porphyry. The biotite-granite is believed to represent a differentiation of the. magma from which the alaskite-porphyry came ; and this conclusion-has an important hearing on the origin of the ores. The intrusion of both alaskite-porphyry and biotite-granite was followed by the emission of magmatic waters, which sericitized and silicified the alaskite-porphyry and granite, and produced in the limestone, by the addition to it of silica, iron, and alumina, great masses of garnet, quartz, and wollastonite. Following close upon these solutions came metal-bearing magmatic waters, which impregnated porphyry, granite, and alas kite with cupriferous pyrite, and deposited in the garnet zones chalcopyrite and copper-bearing pyrite that make important bodies of contact-metamorphic ores. Secondary enrichment has taken place in the disseminated ores in the igneous rocks,. raising their copper-content to 2 per cent. in some cases,. and extensive drilling has been undertaken to block out these deposits. East of the contact-metamorphic deposits there is a fissure-vein of lead-silver ore in the quartz-porphyry. This rock is distinctly younger than the alaskite-porphyry and the granite; and the lead-silver ores belong, therefore, to a period of mineralization distinctly later than the copper-deposition.

May 1, 1912

By C. G. Durdaller, W. H. Robinson, G. M. Pound

The nucleation rate of the a (pay) to 0 (white) tin transformation was measured as a function of temperature and a tin particle size using an X-ray diffraction technique. The powder specimens of a tin were essentially monodisperse and the small dinzension of the particles of these specimens was varied from 13 to 75 p. Several types of nucleation sites of differing potency were fbund to be operative in the nucleation process, but it could not be determined whether these sites were on the free surface of the tin particles or within the volume. Assuming that they were on the free surface, the average density of the most potent sites was calculated to be 2.5 to 5.3 x 10' sites per sq cnz through the application of a Poisson distribztion finction to the isothermal data. Analysis of the temperature dependence' of the rate constmts at a given fraction transformed suggests that the active sites are regions of higher free energy and not catalytic interfaces. Appreciable induction periods were observed at the lower temperatures of transformation. Experimental studies1 of solid-solid phase transformations have led to the belief that the new phase nucleates at structural imperfections. The purpose of the present work was to learn more about the mechanism of nucleation in solids and the nature of the singularities at which nucleation occurs. In this investigation nucleation rates in the isothermal transformation of gray to white tin were measured by an X-ray diffraction technique using essentially monodisperse powders of gray tin. This particular phase transformation was chosen for study because it presented fewer experimental difficulties than most others. The experimental temperature-control problems were minimal because the two phases coexist in equilibrium at 13.3"C, and measurable transformation rates occur at temperatures only slightly above room temperature. The growth rate of the P phase into the a2 is sufficiently fast to make the measured transformation rate equivalent to the nucleation rate, provided that the particle size of the samples is small enough; for the experimental temperatures used in this study, the particle diameter must be less than 100 p. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE The P tin used in this study was obtained from Capper Pass and Son Ltd., North Ferriby, Yorkshire, England, and was of 99.999 pct purity. It was transformedS to the a phase and ground into a fine powder in an agate mortar. This powder was separated by a Roller air classifier into seven fractions whose dimensions, as determined by microscopic measurement of many thousands of particles, are given in Table I and whose distribution of size within each fraction is given in Figs. 1 and 2. The shape of the particles was roughly that of an oblate spheroid,

Jan 1, 1964

By B. H. Sage

IN recent years there has been an increase of interest in the flow of gases at relatively high pressures. Hydrodynamic calculation of the energy losses in the flow of gases in conduits, as well as through the porous solid materials constituting natural petroleum reservoirs, requires a knowledge of the viscosity of the fluid at the pressure and temperature involved. Although there are numerous publications concerning the absolute viscosity? of hydrocarbon gases at atmospheric pressure, there appears to be little information available relating to the effect of pressure upon the viscosity of these gases. Vogel28 determined the viscosity of methane at 32° F. and atmospheric pressure. His measurements at 32° F. were later substantiated by the measurements of Rankine and Smith17 at 63° and 212° F. Ishida12 also reported values for the viscosity of methane at atmospheric pressure. Trautz and Kurz26 measured the viscosity of propane at atmospheric pressure, from 83° to 530° F., by the use of a short capillary tube. Rap-penecker18 determined the viscosity of gaseous isopentane at elevated temperatures. Day' made an accurate investigation of the effect of pressure upon the viscosity of n-pentane and isopentane at pressures from 2 lb. per sq. in. ? to the vapor pressure at 77° F. (approximately 9.8 and 13.3 lb. per sq. in., respectively). Earhart5 reported data upon the viscosity of several natural gases measured by the long capillary-tube method. The viscosity of air, at atmospheric pressure and 73.4° F., was measured by Harrington7 by the rotating-cylinder method. Kellstrom13 has recently made an elaborate investigation of the viscosity of air at atmospheric pressure. The latter work is perhaps the most accurate investigation of the viscosity of a gas that has been made. .

Jan 1, 1937

By J. F. Peters

The term solution loss is discussed and defined. Examples are given showing that solution loss may either have a favorable or unfavorable effect on blast furnace performance. A theory is advanced explaining the contradictions encountered during earlier studies of the problem. MANY papers have been written and numerous theories advanced concerning the chemical reactions in the iron blast furnace. Richards, discussing the utilization of fuel in the blast furnace, said: "All the carbon burnt in the furnace should be first oxidized at the tuyeres to CO and all the reduction of oxides above the tuyeres should be caused by CO, which thus becomes CO,. This dictum is not Gruner's own words, but expresses their sense, and from the point of view of the present discussion, it is the correct principle upon which to obtain the maximum generation of heat in the furnace from a given weight of fuel." Richards also said the cubic feet of wind per pound of coke does not express how efficiently a furnace is running, but it will be shown later where Howland paid much attention to this figure. Richards pointed out a shortcoming of Grun-er's discussion in that Richards claimed there is not enough CO generated in a good working blast furnace to possibly combine with the oxygen of the ore, so some of it must be reduced by solid carbon. Mathesius2 made two important contributions. First, he wrote the direct and indirect reduction equations showing the heats of formation in each case and stressed that the indirect reduction reaction produces heat while direct reduction absorbs heat. Secondly, he substantiated Richards' conclusion that there may be a deficiency of CO gas and that some direct reduction is required, but he pointed out that "direct reduction in the hearth has often been confused with direct reduction in the stack, which more correctly should be termed 'premature combustion'." Then he said that "as this carbon is consumed partly by economical (direct reduction in the hearth) and partly by wasteful reactions in ever varying proportions, it is evident that the relation of this total carbon gasified above the tuyeres to the fuel consumption of a furnace cannot possibly have a direct bearing on the economy of furnace operation. The premature combustion of carbon (CO2+C?2CO) must therefore in all cases be considered a detrimental reaction." Johnson3 discussed this whole problem. Through experience Johnson found that when departure from Gruner's ideal working is considerable, the fuel economy is poor, and when the quantity of blast goes up, the fuel economy goes up in the same proportion. Johnson said that the wind per pound of coke is a measure of fuel economy, which will be shown to be wrong. Howland4 established the fact from operating data that there was no relationship between the coke consumption of a furnace and the percentage of coke burned at the tuyeres. But some of his calculations have led to questionable conclusions, such as "it is practically impossible to obtain low coke consumption unless we keep our wind low." Howland made an important contribution when, in his concluding paragraphs, he reached certain negative decisions as to why one coke works better than another. He said the reason one coke works better than another in a blast furnace is not because: 1—there is any difference in the percentage gasified at the tuyeres, or 2—there is any difference of wind required per pound of coke. Korevaar5 propounded a new theory on combustion which disagrees with Gruner because "as far as we can see, this is sufficient proof for the invalidity of Gruner's ideal, for if it was valid, the Low coke consumption should always be accompanied by a higher percentage of carbon burned at the tuyeres. This not being the case, we must deliberately give up our belief in Gruner's ideal." The part in italics will be proved to be wrong. Martin" contended that there was not enough reducing capacity in the blast furnace unless solution loss occurs. He came to a series of conclusions, such as: 1—The greatest efficiency of the blast furnace may not be attained when the reduction is performed entirely by carbon monoxide as demanded by Gruner's definition of the ideally perfect working of the blast furnace. 2—The so-called solution loss reactions, which should more properly be termed direct reduction reactions, promote furnace efficiency. 3—In modern blast furnace practice, the carbon consumption of the process is determined primarily by the carbon needed for reduction purposes, any thermal deficiency created by the reduction process being balanced in practice by the use of blast heat. From a practical standpoint further discussion of the theory of chemical reactions is of little moment. There is however one phase of the general theory of chemical reactions which is very important and that is the combustion of coke in the blast furnace. The purpose of this paper is to show that the reaction

Jan 1, 1955

By Werner Joseph, Richard R. Knobler

When the first batch of refined copper ingots was cast at Mantos Blancos in January 1961, eight years of exploration, development and metallurgical pioneering by Mauricio Hochschild & Co. had come to a successful conclusion. This Chilean copper deposit, located in the Atacama Desert 30 miles from Antofagasta, is now producing approximately 20,000 tons of copper per year. The Mantos Blancos deposit has been known since 1912 and various attempts had been made to work the high-grade zones before the present operation was started. The major drawback of the ore to any previous development was its chloride content which varies between 0.4% and 1.5% C1. Although the chloride ruled out the conventional leaching-electrolysis scheme, it did lend itself to the process of precipitating the copper as cuprous chloride.

Jan 1, 1962

By R. A. Perry

DURING 1943, supplies of lead, like those of most base metals, moved from a position of scarcity to one of ample supply for all possible war requirements. The principal worry in the market, as 1944 began, was that surplus stocks might increase too rapidly to maintain price stability. The problem of postwar stockpiling had definitely entered the picture. The end of the year finds the lead industry having met all use demands, but not without depleting stocks to a critical low in spite of heavy importations. The principal reason for this dangerously reduced stock position is lack of adequate man power, which, without question, has become the lead industry's number one problem. This condition became obvious about the middle of the year, after Selective Service placed in effect orders that no deferments would be given employees under 26 years of age, and to a complacent attitude toward the industry assumed by the War Manpower Commission. It has become progressively worse since then. The WPB continued its policy, started during 1943, of easing restrictions on materials to be used for maintenance, repairs, and operating supplies. The policy of premium payments established by the Metals Reserve Co. was continued and, in spite of expressions to the contrary, has proved quite satisfactory. In short, the Government continued its program of stimulating the lead industry in practically all

Jan 1, 1945

By R. Rocca, M. B. Bever

THE adiabatic elastic deformation of a body is accompanied by a change in temperature. This phenomenon is known as the thermoelastic effect. Under adiabatic conditions the temperature of a metal bar is decreased by an elastic elongation and is increased by an elastic compression. All materials which elongate on heating behave in this manner. The sign of the thermoelastic temperature change is reversed for the few materials which have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion. The following equation for the thermoelastic effect can be derived from fundamental thermody-namic theorems, as shown in the Appendix: dT8 =-a1/cs T dss [1] Cs In this equation, T is the absolute temperature, S is the entropy, a, is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, cs' is the heat capacity per unit volume at constant stress and s is the stress (positive in tension). Eq 1 can be applied to small, but finite changes in stress in the following form: ?Ts =- a1/cs T?ss [2] The sign of the temperature change AT is opposite to that of the change in stress s for materials which have a positive coefficient of thermal expansion. Eq 2 has been verified for many different materials and stresses at room temperature. No previous publication appears to have been devoted to an in- vestigation of the thermoelastic effect over a range of temperatures. Review of Literature Lord Kelvin (W. Thomson) presented a general theory of the thermoelastic effect in 1851' and later applied it to a solid, subject to an arbitrary system of stresses'. His analysis was based on a cycle of isothermal and constant-strain transformations and led to Eq 2 above. Even today, one of the clearest expositions of the thermoelastic effect is found in Lord Kelvin's article on elasticity in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica (1878). R. ROCCA, Junior Member, and M. B. BEVER, Member AIME, are Research Assistant in Metallurgy and Associate Professor of Metallurgy, respectiuely, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. AIME New York Meeting, Feb. 1950. TP 2760 E. Discussion (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before APT. 1, 1950, and is scheduled for publication Nov. 1950. Manuscript received Oct. 15, 1949.

Jan 1, 1951

By Edward Saibel

THE object of this study is to investigate the effect of prior tensile strain on the fracture stress of a metal. This is done in a theoretical manner starting from the point of view developed by the author in his thermodynamic theory of the fracture of metals. The results are compared with experimental findings and a rational interpretation is given to work that shows the variation of fracture stress with prior tensile strain. THEORY OF FRACTURE In the thermodynamic theory of the fracture of metals developed earlier,1 it was shown that a critical strain energy per unit volume exists. This is characteristic of the material and may be calculated from basic thermodynamic data. When the area under the flow curve reaches this characteristic value, fracture occurs. The general criterion for fracture is expressed in the form u ± uo = JLm?AV/V [1] where Lm, is the latent heat of melting of the unit volume, ?V/V is the ratio of the change in volume of the unit volume to the original unit volume on passing from the solid to the liquid state, [uo] is an initial energy density, and J is a conversion factor, which changes energy from heat to mechanical units. As a first approximation, it will be assumed that the stress-strain curve is the straight line that extends from the point of maximum load onward, extrapolated back to the axis of zero strain, for example, line AC of Fig. 1. If the point of intersection of the straight line with the axis of zero strain is represented by so, and the slope of the straight line is p, the analytic form of the flow curve is [s = s + pd [2]] and the strain energy per unit volume evaluated from [JvdS] becomes (vsod + pd2/ 2). When this latter term reaches the critical value JLm?V/V (designated hereafter by M), it is assumed that fracture occurs. This leads to the following expression for the fracture stress: [s1 = \/C r.2 + 2Mp [31] The strain at fracture may be calculated from Eqs 2 and 3. It is assumed in this paper that the initial energy density is either zero or that it may be neglected. Furthermore, the complicated states of stress and of strain existing in the necked region of the tensile specimen after "necking" has occurred will also be neglected for the present, so that average conditions will be assumed to prevail. FLOW AND FRACTURE CURVES Ludwig2 attributed to materials two fundamental properties: (I) a resistance to flow and (2) a resistance to fracture. He reasoned that at each instant the

Jan 1, 1947

By L. G. Austin

If S (x) is the specific rate of breakage of size x and B (x, y) (see Table 1 for Nomenclature) is the cumulative breakage distribution function, the Herbst Fuerstenau2 assumption is that Inserting this assumption into first-order grinding equations it has been shown" that there are then simple analytical solutions to the grinding equations, as shown in Table 2. In this context "plug flow" is defined as all material passing through the mill in the same length of time, the residence time t. The term "n fully-mixed" means that the mill has a residence time distribution" which can be treated as if the mill were n equal fully mixed sections in series. In addition it has been shown that the assumption of Eq. 1 also leads to simple analytical solutions for closed-circuit, steady-state grinding with an ideal classifier at the mill exit returning oversize to the mill feed. The solutions are also given in Table 2, with µ as the ideal classifier cut size, C the circulation ratio, and Q (x) the size distribution of the circuit product. The specific surface area of these size distributions is where the density-shape factor k. is assumed to be constant with size. In practice, most methods of size analysis or area [ ] measurement have a finite lower limit, so that the integration is really performed from xm, to xm, For a realistic degree of grinding the value of So is dominated by the fine sizes because of the 1/x factor. Consider batch grinding of a feed of size y to y + dy. The batch grinding solution given in Table 2 is then [ ] The fresh surface area produced is the area of the fines plus the area of the original material remaining minus the area of the original material, [ ] Little error is introduced by neglecting the last term on the right-hand side since at t = 0 it is zero, and when t is significant the first term dominates because of the fine sizes produced. In addition, the form of P (x, t) for [ ] realistic values of S (x) 2t ax° is such that the major fraction of fresh surface produced is contained within the bottom 10% of weight of broken material, that is, for sizes for which P(x, t) < 0.1 (providing y is not near x.,). Thus for surface area purposes Eq. 3 can be approximated by [ ] becomes providing again that the feed sizes are coarse relative to xmi. Then the fresh area production is and W is the mass in the mill. The rate of surface production is WK, and the specific surface is Kt. From Table 2, the specific energy is mt/W so surface production per unit energy is [ ] Surface produced per unit energy input = KW/m (8) where m is the energy input of the mill. Clearly, identical reasoning applies to open-cycle, plug-flow grinding, with t replacing t, and Eq. 8 is obtained again. Considering open-cycle, fully mixed grinding, similar reasoning gives P(x) - t S(x) for surface area purposes, and

Jan 1, 1974

By Donald Barton

THE theory of gravitation is based on Newton&apos;s law that any two bodies exert a mutual attraction which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; i. e. A= K MM/R2 (1) where K is a constant, M and m are the respective masses of the two bodies, and R the distance between them. In the earth&apos;s gravitational system, the earth is one of the bodies; the other may be any body within or without the earth. In theoretical discussions and calculations in regard to gravity, that other body usually is taken as a unit of mass: in the C. G. S. system, a body of one gram in mass.

Jan 1, 1928

By Dilip K. Das, Douglas T. Pitman

ONE of the major uses of barium in metallic form is as a getter material in vacuum tubes. Because of the high chemical reactivity of the metal, Ba-Al alloys are extensively used. Numerous methods for the preparation of Ba-Al alloys have been published, a few of which1-4 are cited here. Most of these methods were found to be quite elaborate, involving the reduction of BaO, and not too well adapted for the close control of the final composition of small amounts of alloys prepared for laboratory use. A simple laboratory method for the preparation of Ba-A1 alloys in small batches starting from pure metals was devised, so that it was possible to control the desired compositions to within 1 pct. The pertinent features of the alloy system Ba-Al5 are 1) an intermediate compound BaAl, with the melting point of 1050°C, and 2) a eutectic between aluminum and BaAl4 at 98 pct Al. The accompanying sketch shows the experimental arrangement for the preparation of the alloys. Weighed amounts of aluminum and barium were placed in an alumina and a stainless steel crucible, respectively. According to the supplier&apos;s specification, the purity of the metals used in the alloys is as follows: a) aluminum rods—99.9 pct Al, and b) barium rods—99.5 pct Ba. The stainless steel crucible, tapered at the bottom and having a 1/16 in. diam hole, rested on top of the alumina crucible. The assembly was placed inside a graphite sleeve which rested on a refractory platform. The platform moved the assembly up and down through the field of a radio frequency coil. A glass bell jar was placed between the crucible assembly and the radio frequency coil to maintain a steady flow of helium around the melt. A small window was cut out on the wall of the alumina crucible to observe the progress of the re- action and to record the temperature with an optical pyrometer. The platform was first raised high enough to move the barium out of the radio frequency coil field in order to allow only the aluminum to melt. The assembly was then lowered so that the barium began to melt and flow out through the small orifice into the molten aluminum. In order to keep the violence of the exothermic reaction under control, the rate of flow of barium was carefully regulated by raising or lowering the crucible assembly. All the samples prepared by this technique were examined by a Norelco X-ray diffractometer using CuKa radiation, The diffraction specimens were prepared by placing the finely powdered samples in flat specimen holders. The Ba-Al alloys prepared with a high barium content were found to consist mainly of BaAl4. The structure of BaAl4 has previously been reported by Alberti and Andress.8 They found that BaAl4 was body-centered-tetragonal with an a0 = b0 = 4.530Å and c0 = 11.14Å. An alloy whose composition was found by chemical analysis to be almost 100 pct BaA1, was used to determine the relative intensities. The d-spacings were obtained from the same alloy to which a small amount of tungsten had been added as a calibrating material. Accurate values for a, and c, were calculated according to the method proposed by Taylor and Floyd.&apos; The calculated values are: a, = b, = 4.566Å and c0 = 11.250Å. The measured d-values for BaAl4 are shown in Table I along with relative peak intensities above background and hkl indices. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to L. J. Cronin, the head of the Techniques Dept., for suggesting the problem and for his constant interest. References 1Froges and Camargue: German Patent No. 809107, 1951. French Patent No. 935324, 1949. 2E. Bonnier: Annales de physique, 1953, vol. 8, pp. 259-312. 3M. Orman and E. Zemhela: Prac Institute of Metals; 1952, vol. 4, pp. 437-445. 4E. Fujita and H. Yokomizo: Reports Gov. Chemical Industrial Research Institute, Tokyo, 1952, vol. 47, pp. 291-297. 5E. Alberti: Ztsch. fur Metallkunde, 1934, vol. 26, p. 6. 6E Alberti and K. R. Andress: Ztsch. fur Metallkunde, 1935, vol. 27, p. 126. 7 A. Tnslor and R. W. Floyd: Acta Crystallographica, 1950, vol. 3, p. 285.

Jan 1, 1958

By C. M. WEILD

ATTENTION has been turned recently to the exploration and development of certain large blanket-deposits of brown iron-ore in Cuba. The most conspicuous of these to-day, and the one upon which the most light has been shed, is the Mayari deposit, situated about 15 miles south of Nipe bay. Here the Spanish-American Co. has sole control over 18,500 acres of ore-bearing lands, reported by its engineers to contain 500,000,000 tons of ore; and the necessary plant and equipment, with docks and railways, is now under construction for the early marketing of this ore. A similar deposit, and undoubtedly the next to be exploited, is the ore-field at Moa bay, where 13,000 to 15,000 acres of ore-lands, immediately adjacent to the shores of an excellent harbor, have been generously covered by numerous mining-claims, practically all controlled by four large interests. This deposit is now estimated to contain approximately 350,000,000 tons, on the basis of dried ore ready for shipment, a figure which may be increased when the western limits of the ore-deposit have been more accurately defined. Other deposits of the same type, but smaller and less accessible, are those at Cubitas, situated from 12 to 15 miles north of Camaguey city, and at Taco bay and Navas, points lying a few miles west of Baracoa. The area of the Cubitas deposit is said to be 6,000 acres, and the yield of ore is estimated at 150,000,000 tons. The Baracoa. deposits are less well known, but preliminary estimates have placed their joint ore-reserves at 40,000,000 tons. Accepting the above tonnages as reasonably correct, we conclude that the deposits enumerated give promise of adding about 1,000,000,000 tons of iron-ore to the world&apos;s supply; they have, therefore, to be considered in any attempt to fore-

Aug 1, 1909

By Euclid P. Worden

In 1977, an article in World Mining1 reported a total of 2726 rotary blasthole drills in service. This figure included only those machines produced by three of the manufacturers building drills of this type. The total, therefore, is much higher. Rotary drilling in the mining industry is big business to the manufacturers and suppliers involved, and a significant cost item to mine operators. The time has come to take a hard look at rotary drilling technology with an eye to reducing costs by increasing drilling efficiency. The efficiency of any rotary drilling operation is best measured in terms of the rate of penetration achieved by the bit. In blast hole drilling, there are five factors which affect the rate of penetration. They are: (1) bit selection, (2) weight on the bit, (3) rotary speed, (4) hole cleaning, and (5) formation properties. Of these factors, all but one may be controlled by the operator. Looking at any one in detail may reveal possible improvements in the system. One of these factors -- proper hole cleaning - will be discussed in this paper. In order for a bit to perform at its maximum capability, each tooth or insert should strike fresh clean rock as it falls into its drilling position. If the tooth or insert lands on previously drilled cuttings, a major portion of the energy delivered to the bit is absorbed in redrilling this broken material. A major portion of the interest, therefore, should be directed to the proper cleaning of the bottom of the hole. In an in-depth study of the cleaning of large diameter holes, Allen2 reports that horizontal air velocities of 38.10 m/s are necessary to prevent the saltation of drilled cuttings on the bottom of the hole. The exact flow pattern on the bottom of the hole, however, is not generally known. The air leaves the bit through the jet nozzles and the mouths of the cones, but where it goes from there is uncertain. This problem should be investigated by the bit manufacturers because they can best utilize the results of such an investigation to provide a more effective product. Some work has been initiated in this area and competition will probably increase its intensity. Bailing velocity is the best criteria to measure the cleaning of the hole, including the bottom, and is the factor on which efforts toward improvement must be concentrated. The first consideration is "What should the bailing velocity really be?" In drilling deep holes for oil and gas, 15.24 m/s is the generally accepted figure. In blasthole drilling, the figures of 25.40 m/s for average rock to 35.56 m/s for iron ore were first mentioned by Capp3 in 1962. The recommendations are the same to this day. A number of questions could be asked in regard to the apparent disparity between these two sets of figures. Various investigators have derived formulas which support one or another of these criteria. A thesis on the subject was written by Alexander4 who derived a formula based on research which resulted in velocities in the lower end of the ranges quoted previously. He set out to compare this figure to laboratory tests and his tests indicated that the velocities given by the derived formula appeared to be high.1 Perhaps the best reason that the 25.40 to 35.56 m/s range has been used, is that these velocities seem to work. Below the accepted figures, low bit life and slow penetration rates occur. Above these figures, increasing amounts of abrasive wear on the drill pipe and stabilizers seem to appear. There is a fallacy to this entire approach, however. The entire velocity calculation is made using nominal bit and pipe sizes and compressor deliveries with no compensation made for losses in the system. Perhaps an examination of some of the things that are not presently considered could lead to some practical improvements in the operation.

Jan 1, 1980

By Joseph B. Umpleby

PROGRESS in the petroleum industry in 1929 has been characterized by outstanding accomplishments in the fields of new discovery of supply, economic control of production, increased efficiency and reduced costs of recovery, and lowered costs and greater flexibility in manufacture. Resources have been developed in an outstanding degree in the Kettleman Hills. California, the Oklahoma City field (which adds a large potential area in central Oklahoma), the discovery of Woodbine sand production in East Texas, and the discovery of Wilcox sand production in west-central Kansas. Engineering technique has progressed both along the lines of development and production, with a net result that costs have been reduced and extraction increased in notable degree, although it is impossible to give a close measure of either. In the field of re- fining crude oils variations to the end of promoting reduced cost and greater flexibility has been more important than genera! acceptance of innovations in practice.

Jan 1, 1930

By R. K. Ham, M. L. Wayman

TD-Nickel has been broken in tension and in fatigue at voom temperature. Rod specimens failed in tension by necking, with axial cracks attributed to voids elongated in the extrusion direction. Fatigue specimens failed in shear. Thin-film electron microscopy showed that the subgrain structure of TD-Nickel was very stable, and that particle-matrix detachment was very difficult, in tension and fatigue. TD-Nickel softened slightly during fatigue but had a high fatigue ratio (0.5at 10&apos; cycles). Fractography suggested that Stage I fatigue crack propagation is greatly extended in TD-Nickel. Td-NICKEL* is a dispersion of 2 pct by volume of thoria (ThO2) in nickel, produced by powder-metallurgical methods including compaction, sintering, and extrusion. The spherical thoria particles, which may have a mean diameter of a few hundred angstroms, are dispersed with a mean planar spacing of a few thousand angstroms. By a combination of cold working and annealing, a subgrain or cell structure of dislocations intimately associated with the dispersion can be produced.&apos; This gives the material useful tensile properties which are extremely resistant to exposure to high temperatures.&apos;-= At the same time, the material shows considerable ductility.3&apos;4 At the beginning of the present work, it was considered of great interest to investigate the mechanical stability of TD-Nickel under conditions of fatigue. On the one hand, materials which derive strength from a cold-worked structure are unstable in that they are susceptible to fatigue softening: in addition, the presence of discontinuities such as the particle-matrix interfaces might be expected to assist in the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks, in that they may provide local concentrations of internal stress and sites for the initiation of voids." On the other hand, the substantial ductility of TD-Nickel suggests that if it obeys Coffin&apos;s relation8 (or the more refined form proposed by Manson9) it should have good fatigue resistance. The initial purpose of this investigation was to assess the importance of these factors. Also, relatively little fundamental work has been done on the mechanism of fatigue in dispersion-strengthened materials. Work on overaged A1-4 pct CU10-12 revealed a very large Bauschinger effect indicative of internal stresses at the particles, and very great fatigue hardening1&apos; presumably due to the multiple slip stimulated by these internal stresses, followed by softening which was initially due to softening in the matrix, but later might have arisen from cracking at the particle-matrix interfaces. The study of overaged Al-4 pct Cu could not settle this latter point by the electron microscopy of thin films, since the dispersion is too coarse. A previous study of the fatigue of internally oxidized copper13 was complicated by inter granular failure, attributed to oxide particles at grain bouhdaries; internal oxidation of single crystals, however, improved their fatigue properties.&apos;3 Investigations of SAP (sintered aluminum powder) are complicated by the complex particle shapes, and the possibility of continuous internal oxide films.14 It was hoped to avoid these difficulties with TD-Nickel, which had the further advantages that it was commercially available and suitable for study by the thin-film technique. 1) MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE TD-Nickel was purchased from the Driver-Harris Co. as 3/9-in.-diam rod which had been extruded, swaged, and "stress-relieved" (normally at 1010°C for 1 hr). Continuous-radius fatigue specimens with a minimum diameter of -0.1 in. were ground to shape and electropolished in 40 pct phosphoric, 35 pct sul-furic, 25 pct water at 25oC, with a stainless-steel cathode, at -6 v. Fatigue tests were carried out at room temperature with a Sonntag SF-1-U machine operating in push-pull at 1800 cycles per min, and in an Instron TT-C-L modified for reversed stressing at 26 cycles per min as described elsewhere.10 Round tensile specimens were ground with 0.85-in. gage lengths of 0.135 in, diam, electropolished, and tested in a Tinius Olsen hydraulic machine. The surfaces of fatigue specimens were examined with a Reichert metallograph. Discs for electron microscopy with a Siemens Elmiskop I were spark-cut 0.01 in. thick with a modified Servomet 11 employing a tool of moving molybdenum wire, cleaned in 50 pct acetic, 30 pct nitric, 10 pct phosphoric, and 10pctsul-furic at 85oC, and thinned by the window method in the electropolishing solution at -20°C and -6 v. Two-stage replicas (parlodion, then Pt-50 pct C self-shadowed at 40 deg) were taken from fatigue fracture surfaces for electron microscopy. Plane sections parallel to the specimen axis and containing the direction of fatigue crack propagation were polished, etched with Carapella&apos;s reagent, and examined optically. Transmission Laue X-ray photographs of as-received material electropolished to a point were used to determine preferred orientation. 2) RESULTS 2.1) The Structure of As-Received Material. Grains -1 µ diam and elongated 20 to 30 u in the direction of the rod axis were observed, With&apos; elongated "intergran-ular" voids (-4 p diam and -90 µ long and identified as such using longitudinal and transverse sections and

Jan 1, 1968

By L. E. Young

LOADING machines may be classified in several ways: (1) Machines which cut or break down and load .the coal; (2) machines which simply load the coal; (3) devices which load and transport the coal; (4) de-vices which elevate; (5) devices which transport the coal after it has been shoveled onto the device. There are many types of mechanical loading devices, Bull. 17, Coal Mining Investigations, under the auspices of Carnegie Institute&apos; of Technology, U. S. Bureau of Mines, and the Advisory Board, listing 31 exclusive. of -the large shovels used in thick coal seams. Mechanical loading of coal is not in its infancy; I think some of the early patents go back to 1890. One large coal company, properly called the early leader in this field of mechani-zation, has about 26 large machines at work. This company spent about thirty years in developing a ma-chine, and at the present time is loading approximately two million tons of coal a year in its mines. The chair-man directed a question at the previous speaker; inquir-ing if real progress was being made in mechanical load-ing. The experience of the company just referred to is in itself an adequate answer. A review of a list of mines using mechanical loading devices shows that there are 28 mines which we may say are 100 per cent mechanical. There are four more mines which have been 100 per cent mechanical, but which are idle at this time on account of labor condi-tions. There are at least 25 more at which the tonnage is more than 50 per cent mechanical. In speaking of a 100 per cent mine I do not mean that every pit car of coal is loaded by machine, because when complete, re-covery of the coal is attempted it is not practical to load all the coal at, the break line. In order to load the last 5 to 10 per cent of coal with a minimum of gob material and in order to keep the. working places along the break line timbered in a safe manner it is generally desirable to use a few hand loaders. At a certain mine operat-ing on the block system 90 percent of the coal is being loaded by what is properly a mechanical loading: device, and about 10 per cent -is being loaded by hand. This 10 percent is right off the break line, out of what might be called, the screen pillar. The mines referred to are scattered over the country, . in seven different&apos; States, and the equipment used is produced by ten different machinery companies. As to size, these mines vary from small mines of 500 tons mining capacity-up. In one instance a company with one loading machine is producing an, average of 450 tons per day. One of the large mines that is idle pro-duced at the. rate of 4300 tons per day, of which 97 per cent was actually loaded by machinery.

Jan 8, 1928

By A. C. Fieldner

THE total annual energy production from coal, petroleum, natural gas and water power has been increasing at a fairly constant rate during the thirty years ending in 1930. But since 1913 the demand for the competitors of coal has increased at a rate faster than that for coal. During the last twenty years, the curve of coal production has had a generally horizontal trend; in fact, the 1930 production of coal was six per cent less than that of 1913. Economists attribute this loss of demand to greater efficiency in coal utilization and to displacement of coal by oil and natural gas. These two factors are about equally responsible, and it is evident that research has been intimately concerned with both. About sixty per cent of the bituminous coal mined in the United States in 1929 was used for generating steam, either in stationary or locomotive boilers. A decade ago seventy per cent or more was used for this purpose. This change is due largely to tremendous advances in fuel economy.

Jan 1, 1933

By Hagh H. Bein

MOST mining engineers and geologists realize the value of photographs in their professional work. Members of each group use photographs to illustrate their reports, and articles and photographs, when available, will often save many words of written text in explaining some point or in proving some pet theory. No one hesitates to take aboveground pictures but many rarely take their cameras underground. However, underground photography, too, is really simple. I do not believe that anything new is offered here and the procedures given are merely a compilation of various methods I have tried and used, with some success, over the past six or seven years. The article will deal with photographs to be taken in metal mines, but only in those where no gas hazard exists, with resultant danger of explosions and fire. Some mining company geologists consider the camera a necessary part of their equipment and carry one on their daily trips to the various parts of the mine under their observation. I know of one company whose files of geologic sketches of heading, backs. and veins are supplemented by actual photographs so that a nice geologic picture

Jan 1, 1945

By K. P. Gupta, P. A. Beck, N. S. Rajan

By determining the a phase boundaries in the following ternary systems: V-Fe-Si (at 1175oC), V-Co-Si (at 1175°C), V-Ni-Si (at 1175oC), Cr-Mn-Si (at 1000°C), Cr-Co-Si (at 1175°C), Cr-Ni-Si (at 1175°C), V-Fe-A1 (at 1175°C) and Cr-Co-A1 (at 1175°C), it was found that Si exerts a stabilizing effect on these a phases, while A1 tends to destabilize them. Si atoms in solid solution occupy sites D in the a structure, The co/ao ratio increases with increasing Si-, Mn- or Fe-content. The volume of the unit cell decreases with increasing Si-content. THE stabilization of certain metal silicides (the Nowotny phases) by the addition of relatively small

Jan 1, 1961