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By Bauer. Larry G.

The vast coal reserves in the Wyoming, Montana, North and South Dakota region are sufficient to supply the total energy needs of the United States for several hundred years. Not only is there an abundance of this sub-bituminous and lignite coal available, but it is easily obtainable by strip-mining . The overburden varies from several feet to several hundred feet. This western coal has yet another asset, namely, a low sulfur content. Whereas eastern and midwestern coal has a sulfur content of 2.5%, the upper Great Plains coal contains sulfur in the 0.5% range. The importance of the sulfur content of the coal is a direct result of federal government emission standards for sulfur dioxide (SO2). Hand (1) points out that "sub-bituminous coals and lignites have a propensity for retaining this sulfur in the ash under certain conditions which is not evident in higher rank coals." This would tend to reduce further the SO2 concentration in the combustion gases of boilers. Western coal is no panacea, however, in that it is far removed from most population and industrial centers. Furthermore, the moisture content of the coal varies from 20 to 40%. This moisture is almost exclusively inherent, that is, it is chemically and physically bound to the organic matter of the coal. It is believed that the water forms a part of the coal structure perhaps as water of hydration of organic salts or organic acids, perhaps by hydrogen bonding, or perhaps by simple adsorption (2). The primary market for this coal is the electric power industry. Lesser markets will be as coke for the steel industry and possible as a raw material for coal gasification and coal liquefaction plants.

Jan 1, 1983

By CHARLES COURT

I must tell you at the outset that I come to this conference deeply disturbed at the 'role of Government in international dealings in mineral and energy resources'. I am disturbed by- the confusion that now passes for policy. I am disturbed by the short- range view of critical problems taken by a majority of Governments. I am equally disturbed by the even shorter range of view taken by a growing army of industries. Many of them clamour for Governments to solve their problems in a specific way, with little regard for any other sector but their own-and with even less regard for the fact that every time a Government takes over some of their responsibilities they surrender some of their freedom. I would not say that longer range views don't exist. But I would say that they don't prevail at the present time. Instead, we are seeing the constant development of many policies for individual problems which don't tackle the fundamental causes. We must get back to basics without delay.

Jan 1, 1978

By C. M. Haight

The mines of the New Jersey Zinc Co. in New Jersey, are situated in the northern part of Sussex County, at Franklin, formerly Franklin Furnace, and also at Ogdensburg. The mine at Ogdensburg is still in the development stage, but the, mine at Franklin, with which this paper deals chiefly, has been a steady producer of high-grade zinc ores for many years. The town is about 50 miles from New York City, among the foothills -of the Kittatinny Mountains. It is equipped with water supply (filtered and chemically treated), good roads, electric lights, efficient police protection and excellent schools, including a new vocational high school. For a mining community, the conditions and location are far above the average. Franklin Furnace Folio, No. 161 of the U. S. Geological Survey, describes the geology and mineralogy of the district in detail, so that merely an, outline of the main characteristics of the orebody need be given. The

Jan 10, 1917

By B. B. Gottsberger

IT SEEMS strange that so many years after the pas¬sage of the first acts requiring registration or licensing of engineers, so few members of the mining branch of the profession are aware of what has taken place. Laws regulating the practice of engineering have now been passed in 19 states of this country, and in many others, such legislation has been proposed. That such laws are necessary for the protection of life, health and property, as is stated in most of them, is doubted by many. That the standing of the engineering profession will be improved by them is certainlyy open to question. That such laws are a welcome addition to the regulation of business by governmental agency, is not likely to be a general opinion. That once more, and in spite of appeals to engineers to interest themselves in affairs of government, an active minority has succeeded in imposing its will on a passive majority, seems but too true. However, the laws are there and information regarding them should be of use and interest to those most directly concerned.

Jan 1, 1921

By C. Feng, P. Levesque

HE addition of rhenium to molybdenum is known to produce alloys with good workability.&apos; Lawley and Maddin found that the critical stress for twinning in this system was lowered by the addition of 35 pct Re, which suggests that twinning may re- place the usual slip operation as the major element of deformation. The twinning elements in bcc Mo-Re alloys have been reported as the (112) planes and the <111> directions.3 This note represents the continuation of this investigation, in which the authors found that the occurrence of twinning promotes the formation of a bcc tetragonal phase, previously identified as u by Greenfield and Beck.4 Specimens of Mo-35 pct Re alloy, prepared as described previusly, were solution annealed at 2400o, cooled to room temperature, and plastically deformed by compression to induce twinning. After subsequent aging for 8 hr at 1300°C, traces of a were observed along the grain boundaries and at the interfaces between the twins and the matrix, Fig. 1. With increased aging time the cr phase grew into larger clusters and finally occupied the entire twinned area, Fig. 2. Experiments also indicated that if twinning did not precede aging, there was no visible evidence of a in the microstructure.

Jan 1, 1962

By Milton T. Pana

Computer techniques now have been applied to the solution of a wide variety of scientific and engineering problems in the mining industry, but generally not in great depth in any one area. In mining, the area covered in greatest depth and with the greatest success has probably been mine planning and to a lesser degree production scheduling. A rather comprehensive review of the literature related to mine planning and production scheduling indicates that contributions in these areas have been geographically, as well as organizationally, widespread. Of twenty-six papers reviewed, eleven were from industry, eight from educational institutions, four from computer vendors, two from the Bureau of Mines, and one from a private consultant. The conclusions that can be derived from the literature are: First, the-state-of-the art has advanced to the point that computing ore reserves and developing mining plans with the aid of the computer is now a routine practice; second, the application of the computer to mine planning problems has markedly improved our ability to estimate ore reserves, more accurately define pit limits, and determine an optimum mining sequence. MINE PLANNING The papers in this section deal essentially with the problem of determining the final pit limits of an orebody and the ore reserves associated with a given pit limit. The problem is probably best described by Soderberg25 and more recently by Reibell. 23. There are two techniques currently being applied to this problem by several mining companies: 1) the multiple-cone technique and 2) the Lerch-Grossman algorithm. The multiple-cone technique is the older of the two techniques and has the advantage of being more flexible, allowing an engineer to easily vary pit slopes in different sectors of the design. The technique can also be used to define intermediate pit contours. The Lerch-Grossman algorithm is appealing in that the final solution is given in the form of a true mathematical optimum. The technique is limited, however, in that the size of the blocks in the orebody model are a function of the desired

Jan 1, 1969

By Forbes Rickard

Gilpin County, the cradle of mining in Colorado and the Cornwall of North America, is too well known to need much introduction; get, for the benefit of those not familiar with the district, it may be well to premise that it comprises a tract of country of about 122 square miles, lying between the counties of Jefferson, Boulder and Clear Creek, and hounded on the west by the main range of the Colorado Rockies. It is located centrally in the State, 40 miles west from the city of Denver. During the 38 years since the first gold-discovery, Gilpin county has contributed about eighty million dollars in gold and silver to the world&apos;s supply of these metals. Many mining districts have had their rise and decline in half this time; but, very far from being exhausted, this mining district is still in the ascendant; its output is increasing (it was $3,600,000 for the year just closed), and it was never more prosperous nor productive than to-day. Taken generally, there does not exist anywhere in the world so great a number of permanent veins within so small an area as in this district. Gilpin is practically a " poor man&apos;s camp." Its veins, with few exceptions, outcrop at the surface. In the oarlier---days of the camp these outcrops were worked in many instances by sluice-mining; particularly is this the case with regard to the veins of the Russell gulch. Discoveries are still made in the heart of this district, and the productive area is every year extending its limits. The districts of Yankee Hill, Hawkeye and Pine Creek, which used to be isolated, are now part and portion of the one gold-field of Gilpin county. Within the last year sensationally rich gold-discoveries have

Jan 1, 1899

By J. D. Price, W. M. Bertholf

In preparing a paper on coal washing in Colorado and New Mexico, it is difficult to refrain from entering into a discussion of the historical aspects of this subject, for the story of coal washing in these states goes back well into the last century. This phase of the subject could well make a complete paper in itself, and of necessity this present discussion must be limited to current operations. Therefore, we are taking into consideration only those washing plants which have operated for some period during the years of 1947 and 1948.

Jan 1, 1949

By Paul M. Tyler

Higher freight rates and better methods of beneficiation now may make it more economical to open inferior deposits closer to a glass factory than to work higher-grade deposits farther away. Nature of impurities and special treatments as well as common practice of sulphuric acid leaching are described. HISTORICAL concepts of the economics of the glass-sand industry are changing rapidly. The greatly expanded demand for glass containers combined with higher freight rates on raw materials and manufactured products have induced a migration of glass factories toward densely populated centers and the creation of new standards of place value for substandard sand deposits. This migration has been facilitated by the construction of pipelines to bring cheaper natural gas and liquid fuel to large cities and may be further speeded by the adoption of modern mineral dressing methods to permit economical utilization of local raw materials. Our national resources of naturally high-grade silica sand are abundant, but most of the best deposits are situated so far from large centers of population that it now costs $3.00 to $5.00 a ton to carry the sand from the mine to the optimum site for a factory making beverage bottles, scientific and electrical glassware, and miscellaneous blown and pressed ware for local markets. It follows that on the basis of freight savings alone it may be economical to use material from inferior deposits closer to the factory even though the f.O.b. cost of mining and treatment may be much higher than at a higher grade deposit farther away. Particle-size distribution is a feature of glass-sand specifications. As long as glassmakers insisted upon having their sand principally coarser than 100-mesh, any material was automatically excluded from consideration that could not be purified without fine grinding or other drastic treatment which greatly reduces the size of the quartz grains. However, re- cent large-scale tests in Norway&apos; showed that finely-crushed quartz used in a soda-lime-silica glass batch caused it to melt and become refined appreciably faster than when ordinary coarse (Belgian) sand was employed. Dust losses were negligible. Since the pre-war cost of sand was only 3 pct of the manufacturing cost of the glass, it was deemed economical to pay twice as much for crushed quartz because of the saving in wear and tear on the furnace walls. In the author&apos;s unverified opinion, sand ranging in size between 150 and 400-mesh would probably be superior to that in the more usual range of 20 to 100-mesh. Former objections to fine sand (other than dust) were doubtless fostered by the natural concentration of impurities in the finer sizes. Ordinarily the most objectionable, as well as the commonest, impurity from the standpoint of the manufacturer of any but the cheaper qualities of colored glass is iron. No natural sands are really pure silica. Even water-clear quartz crystals are likely to contain impurities in the form of solid solution as well as inclusions which cannot be eliminated except by chemical treatment that will break down the silica lattice. Pure white pegmatite quartz will usually analyze 0.01 pct or more of iron oxide, and ordinary vein quartz and the quartz grains in most

Jan 1, 1951

By Paul M. Tyler

Higher freight rates and better methods of beneficiation now may make it more economical to open inferior deposits closer to a glass factory than to work higher-grade deposits farther away. Nature of impurities and special treatments as well as common practice of sulphuric acid leaching are described. HISTORICAL concepts of the economics of the glass-sand industry are changing rapidly. The greatly expanded demand for glass containers combined with higher freight rates on raw materials and manufactured products have induced a migration of glass factories toward densely populated centers and the creation of new standards of place value for substandard sand deposits. This migration has been facilitated by the construction of pipelines to bring cheaper natural gas and liquid fuel to large cities and may be further speeded by the adoption of modern mineral dressing methods to permit economical utilization of local raw materials. Our national resources of naturally high-grade silica sand are abundant, but most of the best deposits are situated so far from large centers of population that it now costs $3.00 to $5.00 a ton to carry the sand from the mine to the optimum site for a factory making beverage bottles, scientific and electrical glassware, and miscellaneous blown and pressed ware for local markets. It follows that on the basis of freight savings alone it may be economical to use material from inferior deposits closer to the factory even though the f.O.b. cost of mining and treatment may be much higher than at a higher grade deposit farther away. Particle-size distribution is a feature of glass-sand specifications. As long as glassmakers insisted upon having their sand principally coarser than 100-mesh, any material was automatically excluded from consideration that could not be purified without fine grinding or other drastic treatment which greatly reduces the size of the quartz grains. However, re- cent large-scale tests in Norway&apos; showed that finely-crushed quartz used in a soda-lime-silica glass batch caused it to melt and become refined appreciably faster than when ordinary coarse (Belgian) sand was employed. Dust losses were negligible. Since the pre-war cost of sand was only 3 pct of the manufacturing cost of the glass, it was deemed economical to pay twice as much for crushed quartz because of the saving in wear and tear on the furnace walls. In the author&apos;s unverified opinion, sand ranging in size between 150 and 400-mesh would probably be superior to that in the more usual range of 20 to 100-mesh. Former objections to fine sand (other than dust) were doubtless fostered by the natural concentration of impurities in the finer sizes. Ordinarily the most objectionable, as well as the commonest, impurity from the standpoint of the manufacturer of any but the cheaper qualities of colored glass is iron. No natural sands are really pure silica. Even water-clear quartz crystals are likely to contain impurities in the form of solid solution as well as inclusions which cannot be eliminated except by chemical treatment that will break down the silica lattice. Pure white pegmatite quartz will usually analyze 0.01 pct or more of iron oxide, and ordinary vein quartz and the quartz grains in most

Jan 1, 1951

By E. A. Gulbransen, W. S. Wysong, K. Andrew

The reaction of carbon in solid solution in a metal with the surface oxide fim on many metals may be inferred from thermo-dynamic calculations for high vacua and high temperature conditions. Holm has recently shown that oxide films may be removed from ferrous materials by heating in a vacuum at high temperatures and that carbon is the essential element in the reaction. considerable work has been described in the literature on the de-carburization reaction. Several general references may been 2,3,4 However, the nature of the mechanism involved in the decarburization is not well understood. Our interest in this reaction resulted from many attempts to degas and to reduce by pure and dry hydrogen the surface oxides on strips of various types Of chrome-nickel alloys. Some of the early experiments On the behavior Of &apos;3 pct chrome-iron in vacua of the order of 5 X lo&apos; mm and at a temperature Of 600°C have been reported.5 These experi-merits showed a &apos;low reaction with the residual Oxygen Or water vapor in the system and no reaction with hydrogen. This is in accord with thermodynamic data which would lead to the prediction that it is extremely difficult to maintain a hydrogen atmosphere at 600&apos; C pure enough to reduce Crz03 formed On the surface. The crystal structure of the superficial oxide film formed on 13 pct chrome- iron and Nichrome V has been investigated in the thin film range by Gulbransenr Phelps and Hickman,&apos; and shown to be "203. It Was surprising to us to note that when a specimen of Nichrome V containing approximately 80 pet nicke1 and 20 pet chromium was heated to 850°C in a high vacuum, the specimen lost weight. The rate Of weight loss was very temperature sensitive. A study of this reaction in vacua and in a hydrogen atmosphere is the subject of this communication. Type Reactions Let us consider the various reactions which may occur when a metal is heated in vacua, in a hydrogen atmosphere, or in an oxygen atmosphere. The number and kind of reactions will depend upon the chemical nature of the metal, its alloying constituents and the location of the alloying constituents. The metals used in this study are chrome-nickel alloys of the heater type, They consist essentially of chromium, nickel and iron, small amounts of carbon, silicon and manganese and traces of zirconium, calcium, aluminum and magnesium. The trace elements are added to improve the lifetime and other characteristics of the alloy when used as a heater. Seven of the more important reactions with which we are going to be concerned here are as follows: 1. Metal . (gas) F? metal + gas — degassing of the metal 2. zM(s) + y }i Oi(g) M MIOu(s) -oxidation

Jan 1, 1949

By Arthur Notman

THE raw material men in all industries, and copper is no exception, are accustomed to think of them- selves as the whole show, and not without justice, for if there were no copper mines the world would have no copper. Nevertheless, many different things costing money and resulting in profits must be done to their product before it is ready for the world&apos;s use. In other words, they are making the frequent mistake of Chinking in terms of partial costs. Nobody really uses electrolytic copper. Possibly that is why nobody seems willing to pay anything for it. The manufacturers, being canny, do not buy any more electrolytic than they feel that they can work up and sell profitably, although they like to make the raw material men Chink that they will take all that can be produced. This is a state of affairs that has aroused my sympathy and curiosity, and has induced me to study the financial history of the copper wire and brass industry of the country or such portion of it as publishes any records readily available to the curious minded. About 60 per cent of the electrolytic copper used in this country is drawn into wire and consumed by the electrical industries. The remaining 40 per cent is

Jan 1, 1926

Bailey, Lewis Newton, Master Engineer, Senior Grade, 4th Regiment, U. S. Engineers, Headquarters Company, died of pneumonia at Camp Merritt, N. J., on April 30, 1.918. Baird, Louis, Lieut., Royal Field Artillery, British Army, died on the battlefield in 1915. Cobeldick, William Morley, Royal Engineers, died from gas poisoning on October 7, 1915. Dougall, Ralph, killed in action Evans, Alfred Winter, Lieut.-Col., New Zealand_ Rifle Brigade, D. S. 0., D. C. M., killed in action on October 12, 1917. Hague, William, 1st Lieut., Engineer Officers&apos; Reserve Corps, died in active service.

Jan 8, 1918

By Stanley D. Michaelson, Norman Weiss

This was a year of realization. Some years are for planning and development, some for designing and building, others for fulfillment. With greater hopes and plans for the future than ever before, the year 1954, nevertheless, will be remembered principally because of project completion. Among copper mines, for example, there were Silver Bell, Copper Cities, Bisbee, Yerington, and White Pine. In iron, there were the Humboldt, Coleraine, Cerro Bolivar, and Eagle Mountain. In asbestos, Johns-Manville&apos;s new mill at Asbestos, Que. In uranium, completion of the ninth mill on the Colorado Plateau-Kerr-McGee&apos;s at Shiprock, N. M. In research, 1954 marked the completion of Kennecott&apos;s Research Center in Salt Lake City, one of the historic forward strides in the science of minerals beneficiation. The year was fruitful in other directions as well. Investigations of a fundamental nature were on the upswing, and pilot plant projects have also increased in size and number. Progress in new reagents and equipment was greater than normal. It can already be conservatively predicted-from the technological point of view-that 1955 and 1956 will be tremendous years.

Jan 3, 1955

By Richard McCaffery

WHEN we began the study of blast furnace slags we limited our work at first to a study of those slags containing only lime, alumina and silica. On our paper1 on some of the results of this first work, the solubility of sulfur in slags containing no magnesia was reported and the question of sulfur solubility and slag viscosity discussed. There has been, for a long time, a very great difference of opinion among metallurgists as to he effect of magnesia in blast furnace slags, and the literature is full if expressions of the most contrary opinions on the subject. As a result, our next publication&apos; developed the constitution of slags considered as a four-component system, silica-alumina-lime-magnesia, and advanced an explanation of slag structure which accorded with the facts and with scientific theory. The present paper continues our study of the general subject of slags. As blast furnace slags are included in the silica-alumina-lime-magnesia system, which is a particular case of four-component solutions, we have determined that there are 22 components Table 1), which may enter into the silica-alumina-lime-magnesia system and that 10 or 12 of these components may be present in blast furnace slags which are within the ordinary ranges of composition. To cave a very definite conception of the behavior of these components in a slag, we have developed the theory of the cooling of a four-component solution from the liquid state to the solid and the conclusions that we obtained have been made use of in this paper. On account of the importance of the four oxides and 18 compounds which enter into the silica-alumina-lime-magnesia system, some method of calculating the percentages of the various compounds that are present in the slag when the percentages of the oxides are given, seemed very desirable and we develop L method later herein for doing this, and finally we give illustrations of the composition of a wide series of blast furnace slags and show some applications of these composition data.

Jan 1, 1927

By M. E. Learmont, R. J. Lipp, I. Iwasaki

In the selective flocculation of iron ores, the concentration of alkaline earth ions in pulp solutions plays a critical role. Sodium silicate, alone or with sodium tripolyphosphate, has been used as a dispersant. When Ca+ + concentration exceeds 15 to 20 ppm, however, only a strong complexing agent, such as ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) was found to be effective (Heerema, Lipp, and Iwasaki, 1979). Some iron ores release Ca+ + in excess of 20 ppm. With ores that contain gypsum, the Ca+ + concentration may reach several hundred ppm. The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effectiveness of EDTA with nitrilotriacetate (NTA) in countering the adverse effects of Ca+ +, particularly at high Ca+ + concentrations. Emphasis was placed on the use of NTA since it is more cost-effective than EDTA. It is also used in detergents in some countries (Malaiyandi, Williams, and O&apos;Grady, 1979). NTA, like EDTA, forms a soluble complex with Ca+ + with a 1:1 molar ratio. Its structure and the value of log Kca are given below together with EDTA (Shibata, 1963). [ ] For experimental materials, an equal weight mixture of Lac Jeannine hematite and a high-purity quartzite from Thompson, MN, both ground to - 30 µm (- 560 mesh) was used. Selective flocculation test conditions and procedures were identical to those used in previous investigations (Heerema, Lipp, and Iwasaki, 1979). The optimum level of starch addition for the above mixture was determined to be at 300 g/t (0.6 lb per st). Initially, a series of selective flocculation tests were performed on the mixture pulped with 10-3M CaC12 (40 ppm Ca + +) at pH 11. With no NTA present, flocculation of the entire suspension resulted. The selectivities achieved in tests with 90, 100, and 150% of the stoichiometric amount of NTA were virtually identical to each other and also to the selectivity of separation obtained in the absence of Ca+ + Such an observation could have been expected since Ca+ + concentrations up to a few ppm may be tolerated in selective flocculation (Krishnan and Iwasaki, 1982). A similar series of tests were performed at 10-2M CaC12 (400 ppm Ca+ +). The results are shown in Fig. 1 as grade¬recovery curves. For comparison, the results obtained in the absence of Ca++ are included. At 90% of the stoichiometric amount of NTA, a large enough concentration of uncomplexed Ca+ + was left in solution to cause indiscriminate flocculation. Note in this figure that NTA is capable of countering the adverse effect of Ca+ + even at this high concentration when it is used in excess of stoichiometric amounts. The free Ca+ + concentrations at 100 and 150% are calculated to be 2.5 and 0 ppm, respectively. [ ] The relative effectiveness of NTA and EDTA was then compared at 100% of the stoichiometric amount using 10-2M and 10-3M CaCI2 (Fig. 2). EDTA appears to be slightly more effective than NTA. The free Ca++ of 0.02 ppm in 10-2M CaC12 with EDTA compared to 2.5 ppm free Ca+ + with NTA might account for the difference. As evident, prohibitively high additions of EDTA and NTA were required to complex high concentrations of calcium ion. The use of both of these agents would result in the accumulation of complexed Ca+ + in recycle water.

Jan 1, 1985

By R. Lingle, E. Hardin, M. Board, H. Pratt, W. Ubbes, M. Voegele, N. Barton

A 2 m. cube of jointed, Pre Cambrian biotite gneiss was subjected to uniaxial and biaxial loading at ambient and elevated temperature. The effects of different boundary conditions on the following rockmass properties were investigated: deformation modulus, joint stiffness, dynamic modulus, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal diffusivity and conductivity, and joint permeability. Test conditions ranged between 0 and 6.9 MPa uniaxial and biaxial load, and 12° to 74°C mean block temperature. The tests were performed as part of the Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation program for evaluating site charterization test methods for measuring the hydro-thermal-mechanical properties of rock masses. The fracture flow experiments discussed in this paper were described in detail in a similar paper given to this symposium in 1981 (Voegele, 1981). DEFORMATION MODULUS Horizontal deformation measurements oriented parallel to the loading direction were made at the block surface. Several instrument types were employed: surface short-rod extensometers, bonded strain gauges, vibrating wire strain gauges and the Whittemore caliper strain gauge. Two vertical and two slant borehole extensometers measured vertical displacement. Loading history, especially during uniaxial loading, was critical to interpretation of observed deformation and fracture flow data. This important tendency has been observed in other large-scale laboratory (Bandis, 1980) and field tests (Pratt, et al., 1977). Excavation of the block resulted in minimal disturbance to the intrinsic condition of the sample. Even so, permanent, unrecovered "set" was imparted to the block beginning with the first low-stress biaxial load cycle to 3.45 MPa (Table 1). Unloading

Jan 1, 1982

By T. T. Read

JAPAN&apos;S iron and steel industry has always been closely connected with military strategy. Many years ago it became evident that the country&apos;s iron-ore resources were too small to support any extensive industry. As a result a belief in the imperative necessity of securing such resources has influenced Japan&apos;s political and economic policy in the Far East. Iron-ore developments in China are too well known to need repeating except to note that they have been rather unsatisfactory to both China and Japan. The ore deposit at Tayeh, in China, is not as large as was first believed and, though that and other sources of supply in China proper are now furnishing Japan a little more than a million tons of ore yearly, it cannot be counted upon as a large permanent source of supply. The deposit in Shantung proved so disappointing on further exploration that operations there have, so far as I know, long since ended. The operations at Pen-bsi-hu, in South Manchuria, which C. F. Wang de¬scribed in the A.I.M.E. TRANSACTIONS for 1918, Vol. 59, were reported to have yielded 84,000 tons of pig iron in 1928 and about 50,000 in 1935, so they seem to be going back.

Jan 1, 1937

By A. A. Smith, J. S. Smart

THe elements silver, cadmium, tin, antimony and tellurium either are found as impurities in commercial coppers or are intentionally added to produce coppers for special uses. When present in small quantities, each of these metals exerts a significant effect on the properties of copper, but despite considerable experience and investigation much remains to be learned about their specific behavior. The presence of extraneous elements, particularly oxygen, complicates the study of individual additions of impurities in the range o to 0.05 per cent, and the use of high-purity copper has been found extremely helpful in circumventing these difficulties. It has also been found that individual behavior can be satisfactorilv determined from measurements of two commercially important properties, conductivity and softening temperature, according to methods that have been described previously.1,2 Data of this type, obtained in the course of a general investigation of the effects of impurities on the properties of both oxygen-bearing 2nd oxygen-free copper are presented herewith. All samples except those containing cadmium were prepared as 3/8-in. continuously cast oxygen-free rod from pure copper and weighed amounts of a similarly synthesized master alloy. Composition was checked by chemical methods, which in every case verified the calculated analyses. Test wires were cold-drawn one B, and S. number per pass on a string-up machine using four 30-min. 600°C. anneals at 0.3125, 0.257, 0.204 and 0.162 in. and a final cold reduction of 75 per cent to 0.081 in. Some oxygen-bearing samples were produced directly from the 3/8-in. oxygen-free rods by diffusion from a surface scale at 850°C. and drawn to size as listed above, but most of the alloys were remelted in pure graphite and cast through air into a I-in. round mold. The slugs were then hot-rolled to 5/16 in., drawn to 0.162 in., annealed as listed above, and drawn to 0.081 inch. Conductivity wires were annealed for I hr. at 100°C. intervals between 300&apos; and 800°F., using a hydrogen atmosphere for oxygen-free samples and purified nitrogen for the oxygen-bearing type. All samples were quenched from the annealing temperature in 10 per cent H²S04 and conductivity was measured on a Hoopes bridge that had been checked against a Kelvin bridge. The softening temperatures represent the half-hard stage of the annealing curve as determined by a standard procedure.&apos; Effect of Silver Numerous excellent studies of the argentiferous coppers are found in the literature, and these have been adequately

Jan 1, 1943

By A. A. Smith, J. S. Smart

THe elements silver, cadmium, tin, antimony and tellurium either are found as impurities in commercial coppers or are intentionally added to produce coppers for special uses. When present in small quantities, each of these metals exerts a significant effect on the properties of copper, but despite considerable experience and investigation much remains to be learned about their specific behavior. The presence of extraneous elements, particularly oxygen, complicates the study of individual additions of impurities in the range o to 0.05 per cent, and the use of high-purity copper has been found extremely helpful in circumventing these difficulties. It has also been found that individual behavior can be satisfactorilv determined from measurements of two commercially important properties, conductivity and softening temperature, according to methods that have been described previously.1,2 Data of this type, obtained in the course of a general investigation of the effects of impurities on the properties of both oxygen-bearing 2nd oxygen-free copper are presented herewith. All samples except those containing cadmium were prepared as 3/8-in. continuously cast oxygen-free rod from pure copper and weighed amounts of a similarly synthesized master alloy. Composition was checked by chemical methods, which in every case verified the calculated analyses. Test wires were cold-drawn one B, and S. number per pass on a string-up machine using four 30-min. 600°C. anneals at 0.3125, 0.257, 0.204 and 0.162 in. and a final cold reduction of 75 per cent to 0.081 in. Some oxygen-bearing samples were produced directly from the 3/8-in. oxygen-free rods by diffusion from a surface scale at 850°C. and drawn to size as listed above, but most of the alloys were remelted in pure graphite and cast through air into a I-in. round mold. The slugs were then hot-rolled to 5/16 in., drawn to 0.162 in., annealed as listed above, and drawn to 0.081 inch. Conductivity wires were annealed for I hr. at 100°C. intervals between 300&apos; and 800°F., using a hydrogen atmosphere for oxygen-free samples and purified nitrogen for the oxygen-bearing type. All samples were quenched from the annealing temperature in 10 per cent H²S04 and conductivity was measured on a Hoopes bridge that had been checked against a Kelvin bridge. The softening temperatures represent the half-hard stage of the annealing curve as determined by a standard procedure.&apos; Effect of Silver Numerous excellent studies of the argentiferous coppers are found in the literature, and these have been adequately

Jan 1, 1943