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By W. G. Fischer

Basic laboratory tests on trona and the surrounding shales initiated the Rock Mechanics program. The stress-strain curve, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, the uniaxial rock strength, Mohr's envelope, the biaxial stresses at failure, and creep were investigated. A series of underground problems were then approached using this information and various field measuring devices, most of which were developed by the Bureau of Mines. Initially, stress concentrations near mine openings were evaluated using the stress relief technique. This required an accurate determination of the pre-mining stress field. Later, stress concentrations associated with the cave line were studied. After about 30 stress reliefs over an appropriate time interval the effects of one type of mining could be compared against another. The microseismic technique was used to investi- gate a possible application of warning devices near the cave line. A study of mine reorientation was made. Problems related to the shape and size of pillars and barriers were studied. The effectiveness of roof bolting patterns was examined. Control of roof stresses was attempted. A new system of mining in heavy ground has been developed using the information secured in the Rock Mechanics program. Without this system, mining in more than one instance would have been next to impossible. Indeed, from this one discovery alone, the Rock Mechanics program has paid off in improved safety as well as in dollars. The Westvaco trona* mine is located near the town of Green River in the southwestern corner of Wyoming. It is owned and operated by FMC Corp. on land leased from the US Government, the State of Wyoming, and the Union Pacific Railroad. A conventional room and pillar system is being used, (Fig. 1) with complete removal of the pillars during final mining. Return air bleeders surround

Jan 1, 1964

By George Mah, Charles Wert

Internal-friction peaks caused by diffusion of oxygen and nitrogen have been observed in ytterbium. They are thought to be caused by the redistribution, under stress, of strain dipoles around an interstitial oxygen or nitrogen and a neighboring substitutional impurity. With the use of a simple geometrical model, diffusion coefficients for oxygen and nitrogen between special interstitial sites have been calculated. a) APPLICATION OF INTERNAL FRICTION TO MEASUREMENT OF DIFFUSION RATES IN DISSOLVED INTERSTITIAL ATOMS In bcc metals, the interstitial atoms occupy the centers of cube faces (0, 1/2, 1/2), or their equivalents, the center of the cube edges (0, 0, 1/2). An interstitial atom in this position causes an aniso-tropic distortion in the lattice. When stress is applied, mechanical relaxation can take place by the movements of the interstitial atoms. This relaxation has been used to obtain information concerning the movements of the interstitial atoms in the bcc metals. Data for these alloys have been compiled by Stanley and Wert. Other researchers have extended the investigation of interstitial diffusion to the close-packed metals. Gupta and weinig2 found an oxygen peak in a titanium, the height of which is linearly dependent on the oxygen concentration. They assumed, therefore, that they were dealing with movement of atomic ally dispersed oxygen in titanium. KG and wang3 determined that the diffusion coefficients of carbon in fcc steels and in nickel obtained by internal-friction methods were consistent with those obtained by macrodiffusion methods at much higher temperatures. Bisogni found oxygen and nitrogen peaks in hafnium by use of which he deduced the diffusion coefficient of these gases in hafnium. He observed further that the half-widths of these peaks corresponded almost exactly with those of a single-relaxation process; he assumed it to be caused by movement of atomically dispersed oxygen and nitrogen. From these studies, the deduction can be drawn that, in general, diffusion data can also be obtained for the interstitial diffusion in close-packed metals (or more precisely, in slightly impure close-packed metals). One group of such metals for which little data exist for the diffusion of dissolved oxygen and nitrogen is the rare earths. They have great affinity for gases, which enter solution interstitially. In this investigation results were obtained for the Yb-O and Yb-N interstitial solid solutions with traces of substitutional impurities; these solid solutions are of fcc structure. b) MECHANISM OF THE RELAXATION IN FCC CRYSTALS In the fcc structure, an interstitial gas atom is usually situated in the octahedral position (1/2, 1/2,

Jan 1, 1964

By P. S. Rudman

Laves phases, AB2, are considered as Izerrzisub-stitutional solutions m1hich are defined by a one-for-truo replacement scheme. Atomic-size tnisfit is considered in terms of deviations of the ratio 2V°b/V°A from unity, where v° = atomic volume. A simple elastic model has been used to calculated deviations from "Vegard&apos;s law of atomic vol-umes". Comparison has been made between calculated and observed atomic-volume deviations fov 222 Laves phases. Agreement is generally very good although there ave some few exceptions which appear to be excusable in terms of electronic changes that ore beyond the scope of the present model. We can consider the formation of a binary sub-stitutional solution A-B from an A solvent as one-for-one replacements of A atoms by B atoms. As the atomic-size ratio deviates from unity, the solution becomes thermodynamically less stable and hence more restricted because of atomic-misfit strain energy. In accordance with our previously presented conclusion1 that the atomic volume, v, is in general the most appropriate measure of atomic size, the ideal size ratio for a binary sub-stitutional solution is vg/vA = 1. The Laves phases have been described by Berry and Raynor2 in terms of various stacking sequences of hexagonal layers of B atoms for the three structures MgZn2(C14), MgCu2(C15), and MgNi2(C36). To form the Laves phase of ideal composition AB, we start with complete hexagonal layers of B atoms in the appropriate stacking sequence and we remove, according to an appropriate scheme for each structure, two out of every four B atoms and replace the two removed atoms by one A atom. We thus might expect to find that the ideal size ratio for the Laves phases is 2v/B/ VA= 1. From this point of view, then, we call Laves phases hemi-substitutional solutions since we employ one-for-two replacements. By analogy with substitutional solutions we can expect for Laves phases that as the ratio 2VB/Va deviates from unity the phase occurrence will be more restricted. Laves3 has plotted the distribution of Laves phases as a function of the radius ratio, ?A/rB, and found that, while the distribution extended from 1.05 < rA/B < 1.50, the

Jan 1, 1965

By C. G. Dunn, M. Sharp

IN twinned crystals of the face-centered cubic metals the lattice of one twin is a mirror image of the other in a common twin boundary. When several twins appear within large grain in a sheet specimen, the twin one boundaries form a set of lines at the surface of the specimen which coincide with (111) planes of the large grain. Furthermore, for twins of the same orientation, these lines are parallel. Generally, the presence of identically oriented regions with straight parallel boundaries coinciding with a (111) plane of the surrounding crystal is strong evidence for identifying the island regions as twins of the parent crystal. However, Fig. 1, which shows the macrostructure of a large grain of copper with island regions that satisfy these conditions. is not an illustration of (111) twins. Since the reverse side of the specimen has much the same appearance, it was thought at first that these regions, which appear dark in the macrograph, actually were twins. According to X-ray data, however, these regions are second-order twins of the large crystal. With regard to their formation, these second-order twins formed by secondary recrystallization in a cube texture matrix. Growth occurred in the direction of the arrow (see Fig. 1) as the specimen moved slowly into a gradient temperature furnace as described previously.&apos; Nucleation of the second-order twins occurred, therefore, on the ends facing opposite the arrow. If the origin of the second-order twins were due to repeated twinning, some first-order twin structure should be visible on these ends. This proved to be the case, as very small twins were readily found with the aid of a microscope, and probably could have been seen, in some instances, under ideal lighting conditions without aid of a microscope. Fig. 2 shows a cross-section view taken perpendicular to both the surface and the (111) trace of the parent crystal (visible as a straight boundary in Fig. 1) at the beginning point of growth of a second-order twin and where one first-order twin was relatively thick. In the micrograph, A is the large parent grain; B is the first-order twin of A; and C, which is a first-order twin of B; is a second-order twin of A. Between A and B and between B and C the major straight portions are traces of common (111) twin boundaries. The straight portion of boundary between A and C, however, is not a common crystallographic plane to the two lattices; it is a (111) plane of A and a (115) plane of C. Without considering the mechanism of twinning itself, the origin of the second-order twins may be accounted for in terms of repeated twinning and special growth characteristics. After each nucleation, a selective growth process can be thought of as favoring growth of the first-order twin in local spots only and favoring growth of the second-order twin to an extent comparable with that of the parent grain over relatively large areas in a way similar to that described for twinning in aluminum.&apos; It has already been pointed out that the boundary between the large grain (A) and the second-order twin (C), which is responsible for the straight boundary portions in Fig. 1, involves a (111) plane of A and a (115) plane of C. The same combination of planes is not only possible in first-order twins, but actually appears quite frequently.3 Their prevalence in first-order twins and their presence here in second-order twins, together with the necessary occurrence of a large number of common lattice sites at the boundary, is an indication that this combination produces an "energy cusp"&apos; boundary. (Energy cusp boundaries have been described by Shockley and Read.") The configuration of atoms near a {Ill), (115) boundary in first-order twins is of course different from the configuration near the same type of boundary in second-order twins. References 1 M. Sharp and C. G. Dunn: Secondary Recrystallization Texture in Copper. Journal of Metals (January 1952) Trans. AIME, p. 42. 2W. G. Burgers and W. May: Stimulated Crystals and Twinning in Recrystallized Aluminum. Recueil des travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas (1945) 64, p. 5. aD. Whitwham, M. Mouflard, and P. Lacombe: Discussion of W. C. Ellis and R. G. Treuting, "Atomic Relationships in the Cubic Twinned State." Trans. AIME (1951) 191, p. 1070; Journal of Metals (October 1951). 4 W. Shockley and W. T. Read: Dislocation Models of Crystal Grain Boundaries. Physical Review (1950) 78, p. 275.

Jan 1, 1953

By G. K. Manning, A. R. Elsea, A. B. Westerman

A considerable number of high-tem-perature alloys, that is, alloys which have load-carrying ability at elevated temperatures, have been developed on an empirical basis. In order to determine why these alloys possess this particular ability, a project was started at Battelle Memorial Institute on the fundamental factors promoting high-temperature strength of alloys. .4t the time of inception of this study, the cobalt-base alloy, Vitallium, was widely used because of its good high-temperature properties. One phase of this study was to include an investigation of the structures observed in vitalliurn after various heat treatments. Howcver, before investigating the structural features of Vitallium, it appeared logical to examine the phase diagrams of the related binary systems in order to develop information as to which phases might be present in Vitallium. A preliminary survey of the pertinent alloy systems was made, with particular emphasis on the cobalt-chro-mium system, which is the base for the Vitallium series of alloys. The early work of Lewkonja and Guertler2 indicated that cobalt and chro-mium are completely miscible in the liquid state, and, within a narrow temperature range, in the solid state; that the liquidus shows a minimum; and that the alloys containing 45 to 85 pct chromium undergo a transformation at [zoo to 12 50 c More recently, Wever and Haschimoto,3 Wever andLange,4and Matsunaga5 carried Out experimental work which led to the diagrams shown in Fig I and 2. Both diagrams are based on thermal analysis, metallogra~hic, magnetic, and dilatation data; in addition, X ray diffraction results were used by Wever and Haschimoto, and electrical resistance measurements by Mat-SUnaRa. It is apparent from a comparison of the two diagrams that there was a difference of opinion as to the locations of the boundaries of the various phases, and as to the existence of a phase containing approximately 47 pct chromium. With these excep-tions noted, it might be pointed out that the two diagrams are similar, and that, in general, any particular reaction which is shown on both diagrams occurs at a lower temperature on the Matsunaga diagram than on that of Wever-Haschimoto-Lange. Thus, in view of the gaps in the data arid the questionable features in the published diagrams, it appeared desirable to start the fundamental study of Vitalhum by deter-mining the diagram for the cobalt-chro-mi~m system- Experimental Work For the convenience Of the reader, the diagram as determined by the present investigation is presented in Fig 3. The liquidus and solidus data for the low-chromium alloys were taken from the work of Wever and Haschimoto,3 while the melting point for pure chromium is the

Jan 1, 1949

By M. S. Seltzer

In a previous paper1 it was shown that activation energies for steady-state creep in lead sulfide single crystals varied with the concentration of electronic defects. For n-type lead-excess crystals, values for the creep activation energy, Qc, decreased from 2.9 to 2.2 ev as the carrier concentration increased from 1017 to 1017 electrons per cu cm, while Q, increased from 1.6 to 2.3 ev for p-type sulfur-excess crystals as the concentration of holes increased from 6 X 1017 to 1018 per cu cm. It was also shown in Ref. 1 that the Q, values could best be correlated with the sum of the self-diffusion activation energies in PbS, i.e., for a given concentration of electrons or holes Q, = QPb + Qs, where Qpb and QS are the activation energies for diffusion of pb210 and s35 in PbS. This result suggests that creep rates are controlled by at least two atomic defects, one for lead migration and one controlling sulfur transport. It would be most desirable to interpret these creep energies in terms of an atomic defect disorder model for lead sulfide. Studies of creep rates as a function of sulfur pressure2 indicate that the defects controlling creep rates are singly ionized lead and sulfur vacancies, VPb and Vs. This hypothesis can be more firmly established by determination of Q, under conditions of constant atomic defect concentration rather than constant electronic defect concentration as has been previously done. Therefore, several measurements have been made of Q, on crystals whose con- centration of lead vacancies or sulfur vacancies has been fixed by equilibration under appropriate sulfur pressure and temperature. It was indicated in Ref. 2 that high-temperature isotherms are available which show how the concentrations of various atomic point defects in PbS vary with composition over the entire homogeneity range for the compound. Two such isotherms are shown in Fig. 1 for 900" and 1000°K. Utilizing these isotherms the concentration of a given defect, say Vbb, may be held constant over a particular temperature range by adjusting the sulfur pressure as the temperature is changed. Thus the concentration of one defect suspected of controlling creep rates may be held constant while other defect concentrations vary. The apparent activation energy for formation of these defects can be obtained from the isotherms giving their concentration as a function of sulfur pressure. Activation energies for creep obtained under conditions of constant defect concentration can then be compared with defect formation energies and certain possible atomic defects can be eliminated as creep-controlling species. We have performed creep experiments as a function of temperature at a stress of 244 g per sq mm under conditions which fixed the lead vacancy concentration, V&apos;, at 1016, 3.2 x 1016, and 3.2 x 1017 cm-3, and one were the sulfur vacancy concentration, Vs, was held at lo17 cm-3. The results are presented in Fig. 2 as creep rate, k, vs reciprocal of absolute temperature, 1/T. Specimens 34, 35, and 36 were deformed under constant lead vacancy concentration while specimen

Jan 1, 1969

By Robert Longyear

IN, diamond-drill work, a true sample consists of all the material cut by the bit-both core and cuttings. As the recovery of this sample is the object of diamond drilling, the utmost care should be taken to secure it. Speed of drilling and low costs are of little value if an inaccurate sample is obtained. The engineer in charge must study his material and lay out the plan of sampling, and then see that the drill runner follows his instructions; for the runner may be more interested in obtaining a large footage than in developing accurate methods of sampling. FIG. 1.-CORE BOX. When the core has been removed from the core barrel, it should be placed in a core box in the exact order in which it is taken from the ground. This box, Fig. 1, is usually a shallow tray 4 or 5 ft. (1.2 or 1.5 m.) long, with partitions running lengthwise between which the core

Jan 12, 1921

By Richard J. Lund

Stock piling-and by that I mean well-organized stock piling on a substantial scale-is almost as old as the hills themselves. It was back in early Biblical times, as recounted in the Book of Genesis, that Joseph was charged by Pharaoh with the responsibility of stock piling food during the seven years of plenty to guard against the seven subsequent years of famine that were revealed by the Pharaoh&apos;s dream. And this same policy of storing up food or materials to provide for future anticipated emergencies can be traced repeatedly down through the ages. So our own efforts are anything but new. Our modern concept of stock piling-the purchase and storage of strategic materials to assure supplies needed in time of some future war- stems from our experience in World War I. In 1920, the War Department was charged by Congress with the responsibility of procuring all War Department supplies and mobilizing industry in the event of another war. During the two decades that followed there were many authoritative studies made of our deficient mineral problem, all of which pointed out the urgent necessity of stock piling certain strategic materials as a reserve against future war. One such study, made in 1925 through the combined efforts of the Mining and Metallurgical Society and the AIME, was done at the ex- press request of the War Department. Eight years later another more de-

Jan 1, 1949

By Sydney H. Ball

A QUARTER of a century ago, a pessimistic Belgian financier in conversation with the founder of the Belgian Congo, that great ruler, Leopold II, emphasized the danger to the colony should the synthesis of rubber be discovered. The king replied, "I do not worry. The Congo has had its ivory period; it now has its rubber period. Tomorrow it will have that of its mineral wealth; eventually that of agricultural products." That "tomorrow" arrived some twenty years ago. Through her mines the Belgian Congo has survived the present depression, and her mines for the next decade will safeguard her. The Congo, in turn. is the surest foundation industrially and financially of Belgium itself. In few, if any, political units is mining as dominant as in the Belgian Congo. In 1930, 1931 and 1932 mineral products represented respectively 67.9 per cent. 70.5 per cent and 59.3 per cent, of the total exports. In 1933 for each white person in the colony, there was produced about $1,675 worth of gold, diamonds, copper, tin ore and minor mineral products and in 1930 the per capita production, notwithstanding the larger population, was almost $2,000.

Jan 1, 1934

By R. W. Diamond

THREE mills are now operated by the Consolidated Mining & Smelting Co. of Canada, Ltd:: (1) The Sullivan concentrator, Chapman, B. C. (near Kimberley, B. C.), (2) the St. Eugene concentrator, Moyie, B. C., and (3) the Tadanac (customs) concen-trator, Trail, B. C. Differential flotation is the only concentration method employed in all three plants. Tables are used for pilot work only. Flotation equip-ment and control are similar in the three mills, and the flow sheets at the St. Eugene and Tadanac mills, while much simpler, are modeled after that of the Sul-livan concentrator. Successful differential flotation of Sullivan ore com-menced in the spring of 1920, in the pilot concentrator at Trail. During 1920, 193,804 tons were treated by this process. This operation continued without interrup-tion and with steady growth. For the first 7 months of . 1923, which concluded the pilot plant operation, ap-proximately 1100 tons were treated daily. I believe the Sunnyside plant of the United States Smelting &. Refining Co. was the only successful and large scale operation practising differential flotation prior to 1920. in North America. The Sullivan ore, because of its high iron content, was quite a different problem from that at Sunnyside. The entire tonnage of Sullivan ore had to be separated into three sulfide concentrate products-lead concentrate, zinc concentrate and iron concentrate. The choice and arrangement of equipment, and the original flow sheet for the Sullivan concentrator were controlled by the results of the exhaustive pilot mill test. These covered a continuous period of 3 1/2 years and involved the treatment of 1,076,368 tons of Sullivan ore. Satisfactory recoveries are made from feed; 11.0 per cent lead and 7.5 per cent zinc in the form of lead concentrate containing 69 per cent lead, 4.5 per cent zinc, and zinc concentrate containing 3.0 per cent lead and 49 per cent zinc. (The pure zinc mineral in Sulli-van ore is marmatite, &apos;containing approximately 54.5 per cent zinc and 10 per cent iron. It is apparent, there-fore, that 49 percent concentrate is high grade for this particular ore.)

Jan 8, 1927

By Gordon MacVean

THE adoption of rock dusting, as a safety measure, has made notable progress in the West Virginia coal mines since May, 1925. At that time there were but two mines in the State that were thoroughly rock dusted, mines No. 2 and No. 12 of the Boone County Coal Corp., at Sharpless. Since then it is probable that 75 per cent of the coal operators in the State have given consideration at one time or another to rock dusting. This growth of interest followed the meetings of the various mining institutes all over the country, during the summer of 1925, at which papers were presented, drawing the attention of the coal mining operators to the merits of this safety measure. Yet outside of the experience with rock dusting at the Old Ben Coal Corp., of Southern Illinois, and the Carbon Fuel Co., of Rains, Utah, there had been no actual occurrence in the coal mines of the United States, which could be taken as positive evidence of the efficacy of rock dusting in the prevention of the propagation of coal dust explosions. The U. S. Bureau of Mines, however, had run innumerable tests under conditions which closely approximated actual coal mining conditions and had clearly shown that rock dusting was effective.

Jan 1, 1926

By W. A. Stickney, J. W. Town

Tests demonstrated that aqueous solutions of sodiu~n sulfide would dissolve over 95 pct of the cinnabal- in 5 pct Hg flrotation concentrates and 60 to 90 pct of the cinnabav in low-grade ol-es. Double-leach tests showed that potassiutn sulfide would dissolve 90 pct of the avsenic sulfide in Hg-As satnples and only 1 to 10 pct of the Hg; the sodium sulfide would then dissolve 80 to 90 pct of the rernaining Hg and 30 to 70 pct of the vemaining As. 1 HIS paper describes the extraction, by alkaline sulfide solutions, of mercury from cinnabar-bear ing ores and flotation concentrates. Leaching time and solution temperature had minor effects on mercury extraction when compared to the effects of reagent quantity and ore type and grade. Cinnabar, although readily soluble in sodium sulfide, was only partially soluble in potassium sulfide and essentially insoluble in ammonium sulfide. A double leach process was developed to extract selectively the arsenic from Hg-As products with K2S and to treat the residue with sodium sulfide-hydroxide solutions to extract the mercury.&apos; Mercury was then recovered from the pregnant solutions either by precipitation with metallic aluminum or by electrodeposition. The solubility of HgS in alkaline sulfide solutions was first reported by Volhard in 1878.&apos; The first reported commercial application was made in 1915 when Thornhill applied the method to the treatment of an amalgamation tailing.3 Mullhollen, in 1911. described the chemical reaction of HgS with Na,S and alkaline hydrate to be:4 Most investigators have reported using a 4-pct sodium sulfide and a 1-pct sodium hydroxide soluti~n.3-4 An increase in temperature or excessive dilution of the solution causes the reaction to be reversed. Church Holmes described a similar process used for the extraction of antimony from silver concentrates at the Sunshine Mining Company&apos;s mill at Kellogg. Idaho.5 More recently. Erspamer and Wells reported the results of leaching studies on a Hg-Sb ore from Alaska.6 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Leaching tests were made on samples of mercury ore from eight deposits in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. In addition. tests were made on flotation concentrates from seven of the samples as well as a flotation concentrate from an operating mill. Since previous investigators reported reagent requirements greatly in excess of that required by the equation HgS + Na2S = HgS . Na2S, initial studies were made on chemically pure HgS. Results showed that the reaction actually required about 1 g of Na,S per g of HgS in an aqueous solution rather than 0.338 g of Na,S as indicated by the equation. To check further the matter of reagent requirements, Na2S and HgS were mixed together in equal mole ratios. Water was then added, a drop at a time, until the components reacted; X-ray diffraction analyses showed no HgS nor Na,S present. The yellow hydrate compound which formed would not redissolve until about three additional mole equivalents of Na,S were added to the solution. This indicated that a stable solution would require at least 4 moles of Na2S for each mole of HgS. While these implications may be valid for pure HgS, the possibility of entirely different results caused by the existence of other elements present in ores and concentrates was recognized. Consequently, experiments of the same order were made on samples of a flotation concentrate from a producing mill. The concentrate, containing about 18 pct

Jan 1, 1962

By AIME AIME

T. E. PURCELL, general chairman . of the local committee, opened the seventh meeting of the Fuels Division A.S.M.E. and the Coal Division A.I.M.E., at the William Penn Hotel, Pittsburgh, Oct. 28-29, by introducing Harry M. Moses, president, H. C. Frick Coke Co., who welcomed the 500 registrants to "our town." Mr. Moses, in his brief talk, declared that in the postwar period each of the new centers must have a reason for existence. Pittsburgh, he said, has no iron ore, or bauxite, and limestone is scattered and not near by; but Pittsburgh does have low-cost fuel within reasonable distance. Its problem is the economical utilization of the low-cost fuels that remain, as the high-quality fuels are gone. Mr. Moses expressed confidence in this group in the solution of the problem and looked forward to what they would do. Harold V. Coes, the first A.S.M.E. president to attend one of these conferences, responded. He thoroughly believed in these joint meetings - in the cross-fertilization of ideas. Each Division learns from the other. Mr. Purcell then turned the meeting over to J. E. Tobey who presided over the coal research session that followed.

Jan 1, 1943

By C. H. Jr. Herty

IT Is well known that manganese will desulfurize molten iron through the formation of manganese sulfide, which, being only slightly soluble in the metal, rises to and enters the slag where it remains as such (mixer slag) or is converted partly or wholly to calcium sulfide (basic open¬hearth slag). The reaction by which manganese sulfide is formed is Mn + FeS = MnS + Fe. This reaction is generally considered to be reversible, although McCance1 states- that such is not the case. The experimental work was carried out to confirm the results of Rohl2 as to the reversibility of the reaction. Six trials are herein considered. In each 200 grams of electrolytic iron free from manganese and sulfur were melted in a pure zirconia crucible in a carbon resistance electric furnace. To the melted iron in runs 2, 3 and 4 metallic manganese and manganese sulfide were added to give 1, 2 and 4 per cent. manganese respectively, with 0.50 per cent. of sulfur in each. In runs 5, 6 and 7, metallic manganese andiron sulfide to give the same proportions of manganese and sulphur as in runs 2, 3 and 4, were added. The melts were held molten in the furnace for an hour and then cast into small ingots.

Jan 2, 1925

W. M. PEIRCE, Chairman J. L. CHRISTIE, Past-chairman E. H. DIX, JR., Vice-chairman ALBERT J. PHILLIPS, Vice-chairman E. M. WISE, Secretary International Nickel Co., Bayonne, N. J. W. M. CORSE, Treasurer Executive Committee W. H. BASSETT, JR. R. H. LEACH&apos; D. K. CRAMPTONR. F. MEHL J. A. GANN W. E. REMMERS G. O. HIERS H. J. ROAST JEROME STRAUSS Finance Committee J. L. CHRISTIE, Chairman W. M. CORSE C. H. MATHEWSON T. S. FULLER H. S. RAWDON

Jan 1, 1934

By T. P. Chen, F. W. Bowdish

Studies made with a captive bubble apparatus on the sulfidization and collection by amyl xanthate of true chrysocolla specimens have defined the ranges of pH value and sulfide concentration which permit contact between the bubble and the mineral surface. Titanium compounds were the most effective of the materials found to activate the sulfidization of chrysocolla. With titanium activation, the contact angles and the ranges of pH value and sulfide wncentration giving bubble contact were all increased. Chrysocolla ores were concentrated by flotation. Chrysocolla ores occur at many localities in grade and quantity sufficient to make mining and millin feasible, but no satisfactory method of concentratio has been found. Although chrysocolla may be leached with acid, only those ores without acid-consuming gangue may be leached economically. Because of its potential importance, a study of the conditions nece sary for flotation of chrysocolla has been carried ou The literature contains a few references to flotation of chrysocolla. Two methods were developed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines.1,2 The first consisted of a fatty acid soap and a high xanthate as collectors of chrysocolla from a synthetic ore, while the second involved the use of hydrogen sulfide and xanthate. Ludt and DeWitt3 demonstrated the difference in adsorptive powers of chrysocolla and quartz for bas triphenyl methane dyes and suggested the use of butyl, hexyl or octyl-substituted malachite green as collector. Jackel4 emphasized the effects of combin tions of reagents such as Aerofloat 31, pine oil, and Reagents 404 and 425 with sodium sulfide and zinc hydrosulfite as conditioning agents. Although he reported recoveries of 89% from a synthetic ore and 98% from a natural ore containing azurite, malachite, chalcopyrite and chrysocolla, careful application of Jackel&apos;s method to chrysocolla from Tyrone, N.M., failed to give a high recovery. MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUE Samples from Inspiration, Ariz., and Tyrone and Magdalena, N. M., were used for experimentation and verified as true chrysocolla by leaching tests, specific gravity tests and X-ray diffraction. Chrysocolla does not dissolve at pH 4, although malachite and azurite do. Chrysocolla is about half as dense as the copper carbonates. X-ray diffraction analyses by the powder camera method confirmed the samples as true chrysocolla. A captive bubble apparatus, which cast an enlarged image of the air bubble and the mineral surface upon a screen, was used to check on the character of the surfaces. The specimens were prepared by grinding a flat surface on a glass plate using fine abrasive; then they were washed and kept in distilled water until they were to be treated with reagents. Before each reagent treatment, the specimen was carefully checked for cleanliness in the captive bubble apparatus. It was assumed that the surface was clean if, after fine grinding and washing of the specimen, the bubble would not stick. Specimens were handled with glass forceps, and precautions were taken to avoid contamination of the mineral surfaces. Contact angle measurements were carefully made several times on each treated specimen to obtain reliable average values. EFFECT OF pH VALUE AND SODIUM SULFIDE CONCENTRATION In each experiment, a specimen with a freshly ground surface was immersed for 10 min in a solution of sodium sulfide, washed and immersed for 15 min in a solution containing 30 mg per 1 of potassium amyl xanthate. The specimen was then washed again in distilled water and tested for contact angle in the captive bubble apparatus while submerged in distilled water. In this series of experiments, the pH of the sulfidizing solution was varied from 3 to 7, and the concentration of sodium sulfide, containing 60% Na2S, was varied from 50 to 650 mg per 1. Many combinations of pH value and sulfide concentration resulted in no contact between the bubble and the surface, but over a limited range of conditions, contact angles varying from 24ºto 52ºwere obtained. The data in Fig. 1 show sulfidization conditions that lead to bubble contact and those that do not. The region of contact is surprisingly small, which may indicate why flotation of chrysocolla involving sulfidization has proven so difficult in practice. Several features of the system are illustrated in Fig. 1. In the region between pH values of 4 and 6 with sodium sulfide concentrations below about 350

Jan 1, 1963

By Douglas Bunting

(Wilkes-Barre Meeting, June, 1911.) WITH the gradual exhaustion of the upper veins in the anthracite coal-fields, the problem of mining at greater depths acquires increasing importance and demands the consideration of a number of important factors, one of which is the greater earth-pressure and the consequent necessity of stronger support o for the roof. Under the pillar-and-chamber system, almost exclusively followed in the Northern anthracite-field, the highest economy in mining is generally secured by leaving, on first mining, pillars only sufficient to support safely the overlying strata. As to the necessary size of such pillars, the opinions of mining experts are widely divergent. In establishing the width of chambers and pillars, the thickness of vein and its depth below the surface have received little consideration. For. instance, it has been quite usual to work both overlying and underlying veins with the same width of chambers and pillars, when the lower vein was two and one-half times as thick, and twice as fits below the surface, as the upper. In view of the generally-accepted theory that the crushing-strength of coal-pillars of the same base-area becomes less with increased height, it is probable, in this instance at least, that the most economical mining has not been secured. This question of adequate pillar-support is economically less important down to about 800 ft. than at greater depths; and it is with reference to mining at these greater depths that the study of the subject here presented has been prompted. The necessity of leaving larger pillars, involving greater mining-costs per ton and also smaller yields per acre, is one of the troubles of deep working. To mine without leaving adequate pillar-supports will result, sooner or later, in a squeeze. Limited areas, it is true, have been mined at certain widths of

Sep 1, 1911

By E. D. Gardner

AGAIN in 1945, the fourth year of World War 11, the American mining industry met the necessary demand made upon it for metals. Lack of labor prevented full production in some districts; maximum output, however, was maintained with the man power available. Development work and maintenance of mechanical equipment were neglected in favor of immediate production. Drafting of the younger men continued throughout the year, and the loss of personnel to war industries with higher wage rates continued up to "V-J" Day, Aug. 14. Labor shortages were more critical in 1945 than in 1944 though the man-power situation eased for some districts in the last quarter of the year. The trend in mining for the most part was to increase tons per man-shift by continued increased mechanization and refinements in methods and practices; larger equipment was installed where practicable. Labor shortages, together with the current higher wage rates, have advanced mechanization several years ahead of normal progress. The manpower shortage and the employment of inexperienced men had the effect of decreasing the average efficiency of the individual workman, but this condition was largely balanced by improved organization, greater efforts to improve labor relationship, and increased use of incentive pay systems. Safety instruction was emphasized, personnel contacts were increased, and more frequent foremen meetings were held to clarify contract agreements. Many of the large companies maintained schools to train green workmen.

Jan 1, 1946

By Sherwin F. Kelly

MANY baffling problems of crustal geology-of warping and folding, elevation, subsidence, and great dislocations of the earth&apos;s surface-may now be on the verge of yielding to the science of geophysics. Electric, magnetic, gravitational, geothermal, and seismic methods are being turned to the gathering of geological evidence buried by deep layers of rock, or lying beneath the waters of the oceans. In this hope, B. L. Miller expresses the opinion that these geophysical studies will sup- ply useful data bearing-on some of the more theoretical problems of North American geology. Among these for example, is the explanation of how Appalachia disappeared. This ancient land mass is supposed to have foundered beneath the Atlantic Ocean after the close of the Paleozoic era and the question arises, was it warped or faulted downward? The geophysical data, though meagre, indicate that the surface of the dense, basal rocks, the probable remnant of ancient Appalachia now underlying the Continental Shelf, slopes downwards to a depth of some two miles below sea level at a distance of 140 mi. from shore: thus suggesting that the subsidence was the result of warping downward rather than abrupt faulting.

Jan 1, 1938

By Samuel S. Wyer

Over 8,000,000 people in the United States depend on natural gas for their cooking, heating and lighting service. This service has been made possible only by the investment of large amounts of capital in transportation lines connecting the gas wells to the various communities, thus combining a hazardous mining operation with a public utility service. The effect that making these lines " common carriers" will have on the present and future service to these 8,000,000 or more people is of far reaching ethical and economic importance, and deserves careful consideration. As an introduction, it must be conceded that: 1. Natural gas, although a mineral and obtained by a mining operation—with more uncontrollable and uncertain features to cope with than exist in the mining of coal or other minerals—when served to the public becomes a public utility service. 2. The governmental power to regulate all public utilities in the interests of the public cannot be successfully disputed. 3. Mere suggestion of inconvenience to the utility is wholly irrelevant, as it cannot be considered or allowed to influence in making a defense against governmental regulation. Unfortunately it is not generally appreciated that:.. I . 1. Legislative enactments are not necessarily laws, and cannot abrogate economic laws or alter engineering facts. 2. There is a clear distinction between "common carrier7&apos; and "public utility," although the terms are frequently confused. "A common carrier is one who undertakes for hire to transport persons or goods, or both, from place to place for all persons indifferently, the term implying indifference as to whom shall be served, and an equal readiness to serve all who apply, in the order of their application." On the other hand, property becomes a "public utility" only "when for a particular purpose the public have a right to resort to the premises and make use of them." It is, therefore, important to note that not all public utilities can be regarded as common carriers. The U. S. Supreme Court has already

Jan 1, 1915