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By Dan Zou, Ji Chen, Deqian Li

"Bayan Obo mixed RE concentrate is the largest RE source in the world. RE elements occur dominantly in bastnaesite and monazite. This paper describes a clean and green technique for processing Bayan Obo mixed rare earth (RE) concentrate. A two-step oxidation method can lead to the effective recovery of REs, thorium (Th), fluorine (F) and phosphorus (P). Ce has a property of valency change, enabling the separation of it from other RE(III) elements. Making use of the interactions of cerium (IV) (Ce(IV)), F and P, a new extraction system was created to separate Ce(IV) effectively from other RE(III) while recovering F, P and Th by complexing F and P following the oxidation of Ce(III) to Ce(IV). The method includes two parts. Firstly, bastnaesite is oxidized by air roasting and sulfuric acid leaching. And then a first leach liquor containing Ce(IV), F and P is obtained. Secondly, monazite was converted into REhydroxide through alkaline attack and then Ce(III) in the RE-hydroxide was oxidized into Ce(IV) by wetair oxidation. After sulfuric acid leaching the oxidized RE-hydroxide, a second leach liquor is obtained. The two parts of leach liquor containing Ce(IV), F and P are then extracted by Cyanex923 to obtain CeO2, CeF3 and CePO4 based on the complex of Ce(IV) with F and P. The raffinate was further extracted by the primary amine N1923, and Th-product was recovered as ThO2. The RE elements recovery yield during the whole process is greater than 92%. The new technique not only provides a new way for Bayan Obo RE ore utilization, but also avoids resource waste and environment pollution.INTRODUCTIONRare Earths (REs) refer to lanthanides, including scandium and yttrium. Owing to the similar structure and property of RE(III), it is difficult to separate them from each other, especially for the adjacent elements. According to the United States Geological Survey, in 2010, the whole world has about 142 million tonnes of rare earth reserves. In that, China ranks the second with 22% following Brazil which ranks first with 32% (Cheng, 2011). There are three main RE ore types in China with about 80% mixed ores in Bayan Obo, 10% bastnaesite ores in SiChuan and ShanDong province and 2.9% ion adsorption ores in Southern China. Bayan Obo mixed RE concentrate consists of bastnaesite and monazite. The concentrate contains CeO2/_REO of 50% and there are 7–8% F, 4-6% P and 0.2–0.3% Th."

Jan 1, 2016

By Zhou Aiping, Lv Guozhi, Niu Liping, Wang Wenbo, Zhang Ting’an, Jiang Xiaoli

The current method used to produce sponge titanium utilizes a process cycle of magnesium metal and chlorine gas via the electrolysis of magnesium chloride. The primary issues are the high capital cost of the electrolysis process and the environmental regulations limiting high chloride concentrations. Thus, the authors have developed a conceptual method involving theelectrolysis of magnesium chloride as well as a reduction process which allows for a cycle of magnesium and chloride. In the new method, MgCl2 which was distilled during the titanium extracting process as raw material was directly pyrolyzed at elevated temperatures yielding high purity magnesium oxide and chlorine. The resulting magnesium oxide can be used in the production of magnesium metal. This work examines and compares the energy consumption and economic benefits of the Kroll method as well as the new proposed method. The results from the study demonstrated that in comparison to the traditional Kroll method, the new method provided considerable economic and environmental benefits.

Jan 1, 2014

By Carlos Frias

The lead-acid battery recycling is a major industrial activity (more than four million tonnes recycled lead per year) that generates large amounts of toxic wastes such as lead slag, mattes and acidic sludge, besides airborne emissions. This is a waste-producer industry that needs a definitive solution to avoid its negative environmental impact and getting a sustainable lead production. That is the principal target of the CLEANLEAD technology, which properly combines both hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical routes aiming to get zero-waste production, reducing the use of energy and resources in all phases of battery reprocessing, and consequently, greatly decreasing the operating cost. There will be no toxic emissions to land, water or air, and obtained products are pure lead metal or pure lead oxide, and commercial gypsum instead of waste sludge.

Jan 1, 2006

By J. F. Reddick

The South African coal mining industry is currently disposing of about 10 million tons of ultra-fine coal (<150 µm) per year. Once discarded, these sulphur-containing ultra-fines contribute to several environmental problems. As part of a project initiated by the Water Research Commission to investigate the use of Cleaner Production (CP) in the mining industry, a study was carried out to determine whether a CP approach could be used to identify opportunities to reduce this coal waste, and to determine which of these opportunities would be most feasible. In order to do this, a CP assessment was conducted at three case study collieries in the South African Witbank coalfield. Mass-balancing and sampling, followed by laboratory characterisation tests and site surveys, were used to determine the quantity, quality and sources of the ultra-fine coal at the three collieries. Literature reviews, brainstorming sessions and interviews then followed to generate the CP options. An environ-mental, economic and technical feasibility assessment was then prepared for each option, to determine the most viable interventions for implementation. A number of opportunities were identified through the assessment. By preventing coarser coal from being discarded with the ultra-fine coal, the quantity of coal disposed of could be decreased at all three collieries, and by up to 24% in one case. Increasing the crusher top size would reduce the amount of coal that is milled to less than 150 µm, so that less is wasted. The ultra-fines that have already been disposed of on slurry dams can be completely reclaimed and converted into a valuable product, which can be sold as power station feedstock. The newly processed ultra-fines could be beneficiated using flotation and exported together with the coarser coal. The results of the assessments thus suggested that workable CP opportunities to reduce ultra-fine coal wastage exist at the sites investigated, and that their feasibility is colliery-specific. The associated financial benefits of the proposed options suggested that CP is a realistic approach to addressing environmental problems. Keywords: Cleaner Production; coal mining; coal-washing; ultra-fines

Jan 1, 2007

The Colorado Joint Review Process (JRP), a bold step to expedite energy and mineral projects, is off and running. Blazing the trail is Amax Inc., which serve as guinea pig in JRP&apos;s development and is now test-flying the process at its Mt. Emmons molybdenum property in Gunnison County, CO. Although JRP is still in its infancy, the new permitting review process has drawn enthusiastic applause from across the resource spectrum: William K. Reilly, president of the Conservation Foundation, said JRP is "one of the most interesting projects I&apos;ve seen" and called on environmentalists to monitor its progress "because it appears worthwhile." Stan Dempsey, vice president of Amax Inc., noted that of all the locales in which Amax operates, Colorado is "the only place where the complicated mine permitting scheme appears to work"-an achievement he attributes to JRP. Lynda Lee Brothers, the federal Energy Department&apos;s assistant deputy secretary of environment, reported that an extensive DOE search has not turned up "another single mechanism in all of government and private industry as good as JRP as a model for the proposed federal Energy Mobilization Board."

Jan 7, 1980

By J B. Farrow

The AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy carries out research on behalf of, and in collaboration with, the Australian mining industry. As might be expected, much of its research is directed towards improving the efficiency of alumina and gold processing plants. However, the Centre also carries out research of relevance to base and other metal producers. A key element in its work is the successful transfer of its technology to the companies with which it is working. In general, this is achieved in the following five steps:definition of the problem through discussions with the company commissioning the research; execution of the research; assessment of the research findings; testing of the research findings by pilot plant or on-site trials; and implementation of the results on the full-scale. This pattern is exemplified by the work carried out by the Centre to improve the performance of gravity thickeners which are used throughout the minerals industry for solid-liquid separation. The research has focussed mainly on ways to optimise the use of flocculants (long chain polymers) to enhance thickener performance. It has been shown that the way the flocculant is mixed with the slurry is of profound importance. Computational fluid dynamics modelling of the feedwell region of thickeners and laboratory and plant flocculation studies have been used to determine better ways to contact the flocculant with the feed slurry. Implementation of these and other findings on the full-scale confirmed that improvements in thickener performance were indeed possible. As a result of this AMIRA funded thickener technology work, there have been considerable savings to a number of Australian mineral processing companies, through improved operation, higher throughputs and flocculant savings.

Jan 1, 2000

By V. Herman, B. Knorr, D. Whalen

"Edge effect is a condition widely observed in High Pressure Grinding Roll (HPGR) operations that gives rise to reduced comminution at the edges of the roll surfaces. This effect is caused by a reduction in the local crushing pressure at the edges of the rolls resulting from the sliding friction between the static cheek plates and HPGR feed material. Practically, this has an impact on equipment sizing, as the edge effect leads to coarser particles reporting to downstream equipment in open-circuit operations and increased circulating load and diminished HPGR circuit capacity in closed-circuit operations.To address this, Metso's HRC™ HPGR incorporates an Arch-frame to maintain a parallel relationship between the rolls and allow for the use of a flanged roll design. We conducted a series of pilot-plant tests with a 750 mm by 400 mm HRC HPGR to compare the performance of the flanged roll design against that of a traditional cheek plate arrangement under similar operating conditions. The edge effect was found to be significantly reduced with the flanged roll design. Based on the pilot-plant results, the implications for circuit design, energy efficiency and overall plant performance in a full-scale application were investigated and discussed.IntroductionGlobal trends such as lower ore grades and rising operating costs are driving the market toward more energy-efficient mineral processing solutions, most notably in comminution circuit design. High pressure grinding rolls (HPGRs) have been recognized as an energy-efficient solution relative to more conventional circuit designs. The basic operating principle of HPGRs, in which a fairly uniform pressure is applied to a bed of material in the compression zone, lends itself to this improved energy efficiency (Morley, 2006). Studies have estimated that savings of 10-15 percent are possible when comparing an HPGR circuit with a traditional SABC circuit (Rosario and Hall, 2008). While HPGRs offer a more energy-efficient solution than tumbling mills, there is still room for improvement in many aspects of the design. Edge effect, in particular, is one such aspect that limits the effectiveness of the machines. Edge effect is the impaired performance at the edge of the rolls due to a reduction in crushing pressure (Morley, 2010; van der Meer, 2010). As described in our prior work (Knorr, Herman and Whalen, 2013), edge effect is caused by the interaction between the ore entering the crusher and the relatively static cheek plates positioned at the edges of the rolls. As the material is drawn into the crushing zone, the sliding friction between the ore and the cheek plates inhibits the ability of material to be effectively drawn into the compression zone at the edges of the rolls. This reduces the crushing force in those edge regions relative to the center of the roll where material is being drawn into the compression zone at a higher rate. In addition, the cheek plates of a traditional HPGR design are held in place by spring-loaded brackets that are adjustable to manage the clearance. This spring-loaded cheek plate design prevents full compression of the material in the edge regions of the roll as there is relief at the outer edges."

Jan 1, 2016

St. Peter sandstone is very different from the minerals and rocks that have been studied extensively in mining. On the one hand, it is brittle as characterized by an unusually high friction angle and steeply curved failure envelopes. On the other hand, it is friable, possessing extremely low, and in most cases zero cohesion. The scarcity of the ground control techniques for this particular mining environment has created many difficulties for the mine operators. In order to resolve these problems, the geotechnical properties of the St. Peter sandstones were investigated through a comprehensive research program, which included uniaxial test, triaxial test, porosity test, thin section, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The specimens used for the uniaxial and triaxial tests were specially prepared because of the highly friable nature of the St. Peter sandstone. Thin section, XRD and SEM were utilized to examine the effect of the microstructure of the St. Peter sandstones on its strength characteristics.

Feb 27, 2013

By Hung-Ming Chen

This paper presents a Cloud-based system framework for providing a web-based building information model (BIM) service. Cloud computing technologies were used to develop a BIM data center, which can handle the big data of massive BIMs using multiple servers in a distributed manner. In addition, the system allows multiple users to access the BIM data center online to submit and review BIMs concurrently. In this study, the advanced technologies/tools of web development and Cloud computing were applied and incorporated to develop a prototype system, named CloudBIM. On the client side, this study applied WebGL and HTML5 in the web-based interface development to achieve the 3D display of BIMs and the dynamic interaction with viewers through browsers. Users can access the services of CloudBIM by using PCs, laptops and tablets anytime anywhere to view the 3D model via browsers, which support WebGL. On the server side, this study used Apache Hadoop, an open-sourced distributed file system based on Google?s technologies, to establish a BIM data center. The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) can utilize multiple servers to provide mass storage spaces in a distributed manner. Based on the use of Apache HBase, which provides Bigtable-like structured storage for HDFS, this study proposes database schema for storing the information from massive BIMs in two bigtables, named Object table and Property table respectively. In addition, Hadoop MapReduce, a Hadoop component for the parallel processing of large data sets, is utilized for model data acquisition by parsing the IFC files of uploaded models in parallel.

Aug 1, 2013

By S. K. Kawatra

The paper describes a system for on-line analysis of ash in solids in coal slurries for coal cleaning operations. The system consists of two sensors: 1) gama density gauge, and 2) ash sensor. The operational characteristics of each sensor are discussed.

Jan 1, 1980

By J. O. Stephens

During the late 1940&apos;s and early 1950?s, the Westinghouse Combustion Turbine Division built and demonstrated a residual oil-burning locomotive on six eastern railroads. Plans were made to convert to burning pulverized coal, and a single combustor was operated at a full-pressure condition in the laboratory for about two years. During the mid-1960&apos;s to mid-1970&apos;s, there was considerable interest in coal-burning MHD and a combustor was developed which would also be applicable to combustion turbines. In the early 19801s, the BCR National Laboratory (BCRNL) became affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh, and a program was begun, supported by the Stare of Pennsylvania, to develop an all-purpose combustor for use with industrial and utility boilers and eventually with combustion turbines. In this paper, we review the work of almost 40 years, indicate our present position, and propose steps to be taken leading to efficient and environmentally acceptable power generation from coal, and specifically to coal-burning locomotives.

Jan 1, 1986

By Thad J. Bydlon

Uncertainty of future energy supplies has forced industrial nations to diversify both their energy mix and their energy sources of supply. As a result, U.S. coal exports have grown substantially during the past several years. Projected long-term worldwide economic growth suggests that a well-established trend has been set for increased foreign demand for U.S. coal. As export volumes increase the need for careful planning to prevent bottlenecks and to provide for the uninterrupted flow of coal increases. It also will place increased emphasis on identifying the most economic transportation alternatives. These planning and evaluation functions are greatly facilitated if a systematic method is available for modeling the complex interactions of a coal export system. One such model, developed by the Anaconda Minerals Company, is the Coal Export model.

Jan 1, 1982

By A. P. Cook

Methane Rating has been developed from a need, in South Africa, for quick and simple measurement of coal face methane characteristics. It employs proven existing direct measurement methods, adapted specifically for rapidly advancing coal face conditions, to deal with the short term high release rates encountered during continuous miner coal cutting. The Rating is a comparative value, relative to the normal or average conditions encountered within a maintained data base. The seam gas content and the initial emission rate are plotted against each other on a graph, where they are compared with the average conditions to obtain the rating. The higher the seam gas content, and the higher the initial methane release rate, then the higher the Methane Rating, on a scale of 1 to 4. Methane being released from a newly mined coal sample is measured once underground, from a sealed gas-tight canister. The sample is returned, still sealed, to surface and milled to rapidly release the remaining methane. It is later intended that the milling process is also completed underground. Applications include the identification of changing methane conditions, outburst prone conditions, methane emission against advance, and mining in devolatilised coal.

Jan 1, 1998

By Carel Robinson

THE little coal mine at Otsego, in the Winding Gulf field of southern West Virginia was dying. In the history of coal mining thousands of mines have been successful at first, but usually a change occurred and profits ceased. Often be change was so gradual and extended over such a length of time that the fundamental causes did not stand out in sharp relief and their significance was not realized. Studies often reveal that the cause for failure was in the arteries that connect the producing places with the mine entrance. Profits continued so long as the working places were close to the tipple and while the thrill of newness aid ease of access resulted in effective supervision from day to day. The air- way and haulageway, the wire line and manway, may have been sufficient when the distance from the entrance was a few hundred feet, but were inadequate when this was extended for thousands of feet.

Jan 1, 1937

By Ruth A. Maurer, Steven L. Capt. Van Drew

Coal preparation for a company having several sources of coal and several contracts for sale of coal was modeled. The objective was to minimize wash loss by selecting the quantity of coal to be supplied from each source and the appropriate washbox specific gravity setting to yield contract quality for a given shipment. constraints inposed by silo and stockpile sizes, plant and rehandling capacities, and varying coal quality specifications were included in the model. Solution is by iterative linear programming on an Apple II.

Jan 1, 1987

By N. Wang, A. I. A. Salama

"An index to evaluate the amenability for processing of different coals is implemented. The index is based on the well-known Mayer-curve or M-curve. The index is superior to other existing indices and is implemented using Microsoft-Excel™. Several coals are used to demonstrate the implementation of the index proposed.IntroductionIn 1950, Mayer introduced a curve that carries the information embedded in the fir s t three curves or ash curves of the conventional washability tables and curves (Peng et al., 1979; Osborne, 1988). The curve was labeled the Mcurve (abbreviation for Mittlewertkurve in German or the Mayer- curve). The main idea behind the curve is to use the ordinate for the cumulative mass and the abscissa for the ash (attribute) mass. Specific slopes on the resulting curve represent the cumulative float, cumulative sink, and elementary ash (attribute) contents (Mayer, 1950, 1953, 1957; Venkatesan, 1975; Osborne, 1988; Salama, 1989). Beyond the ash values, the curve carries graphical information that can be used in evaluating coal processing characteristics. Consequently, it becomes possible to present several raw coals on a single diagram, thus making it easier to compare their processing characteristics. This is particularly useful in comparing various size ranges of raw coal or the same size range from different seams. Therefore, the M-curve is adopted as a vehicle for developing the “processing (washing) characteristics index” implemented in this paper."

Jan 1, 2001

By M. Deul

For the first half of the 21st Century the USA will rely on the same mix of fuels as for the past 50 years: Petroleum will cost more and availability will decline as developing nations modernize. Increased use of natural gas for electric power generation will result in severe stress on gas supply. Coal will be the fuel of last resort. More than half the petroleum used is imported, about the same amount as used for transportation. Only coal can provide relief by fueling railroads through electrification while encouraging ‘piggy-back’ trailer haulage, co-generation for manufacturing and expanded passenger service.

Jan 1, 2002

By T. Könighofer

Processing of copper-cobalt orebodies in Africa?s Copper Belt has received much recent attention with various flowsheet options being developed specifically for the refining of cobalt. The upfront leach and copper refining routes are well understood whereas the refining of cobalt is more complex, requiring numerous impurity removal steps to produce high purity metal. This paper describes an investigation into one of the possible processing steps in the refining of cobalt, namely, cobalt solvent extraction. The paper emphasizes the importance of upstream impurity removal to achieve the required cobalt solvent extraction feed composition. 18% (v/v) Cyanex 272 in an aliphatic diluents is used as the organic phase. The pH profiles in the various stages are evaluated in order to obtain a raffinate containing <10mg/l cobalt and with a low magnesium content reporting to the stripping section. The pH profile is also used to minimize the impurity deportment to the cobalt electrolyte. The effect of adding a pre-neutralization stage before feeding the organic phase to the extraction circuit is investigated. Zinc build-up in the stripping stages is also looked at. It is recommended for the purpose of this study that four extraction stages at an O:A ratio of 1 with a pH profile from 4.9 to 5.7 be employed. The pH is controlled with 40g/l NaOH. A pre-neutralization stage is required, where the organic phase is contacted with 10 M NaOH. Two scrubbing stages are recommended at an O:A ratio of 40, using the cobalt electrowinning advance electrolyte as the scrub liquor. Three strip stages are to be employed at an O:A ratio of 0.67.

Jan 1, 2009

By T. Könighofer

Processing of copper-cobalt orebodies in Africa?s Copper Belt has received much recent attention with various flowsheet options being developed specifically for the refining of cobalt. The upfront leach and copper refining routes are well understood whereas the refining of cobalt is more complex, requiring numerous impurity removal steps to produce high purity metal. This paper describes an investigation into one of the possible processing steps in the refining of cobalt, namely, cobalt solvent extraction. The paper emphasizes the importance of upstream impurity removal to achieve the required cobalt solvent extraction feed composition. 18% (v/v) Cyanex 272 in an aliphatic diluent is used as the organic phase. The pH profiles in the various stages are evaluated in order to obtain a raffinate containing <10 mg/[l] cobalt and with a low magnesium content reporting to the stripping section. The pH profile is also used to minimize the impurity deportment to the cobalt electrolyte. The effect of adding a preneutralization stage before feeding the organic phase to the extraction circuit is investigated. Zinc build-up in the stripping stages is also looked at. It is recommended for the purpose of this study that four extraction stages at an O:A ratio of 1 with a pH profile from 4.9 to 5.7 be employed. The pH is controlled with 40 g/[l] NaOH. A preneutralization stage is required, where the organic phase is contacted with 10 M NaOH. Two scrubbing stages are recommended at an O:A ratio of 40, using the cobalt electrowinning advance electrolyte as the scrub liquor. Three strip stages are to be employed at an O:A ratio of 0.67.

Jan 1, 2009

By A. S. Macfarlane

The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy was approached by the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy to present a paper on the current practice in terms of the valuation of mineral projects and properties, given the development of a Code for the Valuation of Mineral Properties, developed in Australia (the VALMIN Code), and a similar Code in Canada (the CIMVal Code).This paper is the result of research and investigation into the matter, in terms of the reporting of Mineral Resources and Reserves, financial reporting practice, the Listing Rules of the Johannesburg Securities Exchange, and various practices in valuation. The paper establishes that a strong linkage has already been established between the SAMREC Code for the reporting of Mineral Resources and Reserves and the Listing Rules, and that, for completeness, a Code for Valuation needs to be developed. This Code will be similar to its international counterparts, with the necessary inclusions which are relevant to South Africa, and will provide guidelines and definitions on matters such as transparency, materiality and competency in valuation. It proposes that a multi-stakeholder steering committee be established under the auspices of the SAIMM, to deliberate and design a process for establishing such a Code.

Jan 1, 2002