Search Documents

By M. Kataoka, Y. Obara

It is known that compressive strength and tensile strength of rocks vary significantly with specimen size. Rocks are composed of crystals and grains in a fabric that includes flaws such as microcracks, grain boundaries and pores. As the likelihood of including severer flaws becomes greater for a larger specimen, the strengths are small. On the other hand, the size effect in the fracture toughness of rocks has not been made clear until now because there are few studies focused on it. In this paper, Semi- Circular Bend (SCB) test was performed using Kimachi sandstone with various specimen sizes. A shape of the specimen is a semi-circular disc with an artificial notch. The specimens were prepared with various thickness t and radius r as the following two groups; t was changed from 10 to 37.5 mm with r = 37.5 mm in the specimen of group (a), and r was changed from 12.5 to 150 mm with t/r = 0.8 in the specimen of group (b). As a result, there was no significant change in the fracture toughness with different t. On the other hand, the fracture toughness increased with increasing r and converged on a certain constant value in a range larger than approximately 70 mm of r. Consequently it was clear that the size effect in the fracture toughness of the sandstone exists.

Jan 1, 2015

By H. Yasuhara, N. Kinoshita, S. Nakashima, K. Kishida

"In this study, flow-through experiments in fractured rocks have been conducted under different stress, temperature, and pH conditions so as to understand the evolution of permeability induced by these conditions. Throughout the experiments, the confining pressures and temperatures are well-controlled. Effluent concentrations are also measured for the ten elements of Si, Al, K, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg, Ti, S, and Cl that are included mainly in the targeted rocks. In the early stage of the experiments, the fracture permeability measured abruptly decreases with time, and subsequently reaches quasi-steady state within a relatively short period. In contrast, the permeability in the intact rocks monotonically increases with time. The permeability increase and decrease are attributed likely to the relative dominance of mineral dissolution in the pore spaces and to that of mineral dissolution/crushing at the propping asperities within the fracture and/or mineral precipitation onto the free surfaces, respectively. The evolving rates and magnitudes of the permeability are likely to be controlled by the stress exerted over the contacting asperities, temperatures, and pH of the permeant. Thus, this complicated behavior should be attributed to the coupled chemically- and mechanically-induced effects, which should be examined in more detail for longer period to contribute to the safe entombment of radioactive wastes. INTRODUCTIONUnderstanding of the flow and transport characteristics of porous/fractured rocks is required for the safe and long-term geological isolation of energy-related by-products (i.e., high level radioactive wastes and anthropogenic CO2). Notably, under relatively high temperature and stress conditions, mechanically- and chemically-mediated processes may alter the pore structures in rocks, resulting in an irreversible evolution of the flow and transport behavior. Augmentation in permeability may result from mechanical dilation due to shearing and mineral dissolution within the pore spaces, while reduction may result from reversible or irreversible mechanical compaction, mineral dissolution at the contacting areas, and clogging of pore spaces by precipitation of secondary minerals."

Jan 1, 2015

By T. Verdel, Y. Gunzburger

Rockfalls are major and essentially unpredictable sources of danger, particularly along transportation routes (roads and railways). Thus, the assessment of their probability of occurrence is a major challenge for risk management. From a qualitative perspective, it is known that rockfalls occur mainly during periods of rain, snowmelt, or freeze-thaw. Nevertheless, from a quantitative perspective, these generally assumed correlations between rockfalls and their possible meteorological triggering events are often difficult to identify because i) rockfalls are too rare for the use of classical statistical analysis techniques and ii) all intensities of triggering factors do not have the same probability. In this study, we propose a new approach to investigate the correlation of rockfalls with rain, freezing periods, and strong temperature variations. This approach is tested on three French rockfall databases, the first of which exhibits an outstandingly high frequency of rockfalls (approximately 950 events over 11 years), whereas the other two databases are more typical (approximately 140 events over 11 years). These databases come from (1) the national highway RN1 on La Réunion Island, (2) a railway in the Bourgogne-Franche Comté region, and (3) a railway in the Auvergne region. Whereas a basic correlation analysis is only able to highlight an already obvious correlation in the case of the “rich” database, the newly suggested method appears to detect correlations even in the “poor” ones. Indeed, the use of this method confirms the positive correlation between rainfalls and rockfalls on La Réunion Island database. This method highlights a correlation between cumulative rainfalls and rockfalls in the Bourgogne region, and it detects a correlation between the daily minimum temperature and rockfalls in the Auvergne region. This new approach is easy to use and also serves to determine the conditional probability of rockfall function of a given meteorological factor. This approach will help to optimize risk management in the studied areas based on their meteorological conditions. Nevertheless, even if some rockfalls are correlated to meteorological factors, other seems to occur independently of these factors, which highlights the unpredictability of rockfall hazard.

Jan 1, 2015

By L. D. van Dyk, G. S. Tshofu

Iron ore fines are by-products of iron ore mining operations. Unlike iron ore lumps, fines cannot directly be used in conventional iron making processes, and consequently large quantities accumulate around the world. Pelletizing and sintering can be used to convert iron ore fines into agglomerates or briquettes for processing with lump ore, but these techniques are energy intensive and produce greenhouse gases. This research investigated the extraction of iron from iron ore fines using acetylacetone (a ß-diketone) as an environmentally friendly alternative process for fines utilization. A 2k factorial experiment design was used to identify the significant extraction variables. It was found that the reaction temperature and solid to liquid ratio had significant effects on the extraction process. The extraction kinetics were studied at different temperatures and the highest iron extraction (97 %) was obtained after 48 hours at 413 K and 0.025:1 (g:mL) solid to liquid ratio for a particle size range of +106 to -150 µm. The extraction products were easily separated from the unreacted acetylacetone by flash distillation and iron(III) acetylacetonate crystals were recovered. An economic evaluation showed that selling the crystals was profitable. Alternatively, the crystals can be reduced with hydrogen to iron particles and acetylacetone (for reuse).

Jan 1, 2015

By Nobuzwe Makhotla, Sasha Boskovic, Steve Hearn

"Mineral separation efficiency in flotation depends, to an extent, on the type of frother used. Huntsman develops and manufactures unique frothers which are suited for mineral processing applications. This paper discusses the Huntsman approach to understanding the industry’s flotation frother requirements to optimise frother selection and introduce the Huntsman’s POLYFROTH® frother range. Specific case studies where the frothers are used are discussed. INTRODUCTION Froth flotation is a process of using bubbles to separate minerals based on their relative affinity for water. Bubbles are induced in the slurry through aeration. Chemistry is used to aid the flotation process and chemical reagents are added to enhance the separation process. The flotation reagents include frothers, collectors, surface modifiers and pH regulators that control physical and chemical conditions of solid, air and liquid phases, respectively. As described by Harris (1976), the key effect is that of bubble size control by way of preservation of the generated bubble size, which is attributed to the coalescence inhibition by the presence of the frother on the bubble surface. Following this, the frother must stabilize the froth phase. Frothers are also added to create optimal conditions for bubble creation and stability by decreasing the surface tension of the water. Depressants may be added, depending on the ore treated, to assist the hydrophilic particles to stay in the water phase. Clay particles may need to be dispersed to prevent them from attaching to the bubbles. Hydrophobic particles attach to the bubbles and are carried to the surface of the slurry where froth is formed. It is important for these bubbles to have the mobility to carry the mineral to the launder where the concentrate is collected. Types of Frothers There are generally three main groups of frothers used in froth flotation. Alcohol Type These frothers have a molecular structure that usually includes 5 to 8 carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon chain and their solubility in water is limited. Methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) belongs to this category and is widely used in the industry. The weaker alcohol-type frothers are more selective and typically suited to finer particles. There are three sub-categories under this group: aliphatic, cyclic and aromatic alcohols."

Jan 1, 2015

By S. K. Kawatra, H. J. Haselhuhn

"Fine-grained hematite ore can be concentrated by the process of selective flocculation and dispersion, which relies on proper reagent selection and control of water chemistry. While many previous studies have been performed analyzing the effects of different reagents on this process in a laboratory environment, this paper focuses on investigating the water chemistry within the process in a pilot-scale continuous deslime thickener.The pH, sodium concentration, calcium concentration and magnesium concentration were varied to determine their effects on the iron concentrate grade and recovery, and the phosphorus concentrate grade and rejection in the pilotscale selective deslime thickener. The ideal pH for the iron grade and recovery of the process using a starch selective flocculant was found to be 10.5. Phosphorus rejection, however, was increased at lower pH values. Minimization of sodium concentration was shown to improve iron grade, iron recovery and phosphorus rejection. Calcium acted as a nonselective flocculant showing higher iron recovery, lower iron grade and lower phosphorus rejection with increasing concentration. Conclusions could not be drawn from the experiments that varied magnesium concentration.The zeta potential of the solid-liquid interface of particles in each sample taken was also analyzed to show relationships between zeta potential and process performance. In all cases, a maximization of the magnitude of zeta potential correlated with increased iron grade and recovery. This supports the hypothesis that a higher level of dispersion enhances the selective flocculation and separation process.IntroductionThe United States produced 53.2 million metric tons out of the 3,000 million metric tons of concentrated iron ore produced worldwide in 2012 (Tuck, 2013). With this in mind, there has been a large increase in iron ore processing research (Bolen, 2014; Carlson and Kawatra, 2008, 2013; Halt and Kawatra, 2014; Halt et al., 2014; Haselhuhn et al., 2012a,b, 2013a,b; Liu et al., 2014; Manouchehri, 2014; Sandvik and Larsen, 2014; Semberg et al., 2014). Of the 53.2 million metric tons produced, roughly 8 million metric tons of hematite (Fe2O3) concentrate were produced using a process known as selective flocculation and dispersion (Cliffs Natural Resources, 2011). This process is the only economically viable method for concentrating low grade (< 40% Fe) fine grain (< 25µm liberation size) hematite ores. It is scarcely used due to difficulty in controlling the surface chemistry of the ore and high reagent costs (Department of Energy, 2001; Haselhuhn et al., 2013a). The process is highly dependent upon both reagent selection and precise control of the water chemistry during separation. This study shows the dependence of the process performance of a pilot-scale deslime thickener on the water chemistry in the feed slurry."

Jan 1, 2015

By C. L. Peng, F. F. Min, S. X. Song

"Using a parameter representing the degree of hydration of particles in a liquid called hydration index I, which we derived based on Einstein’s viscosity equation, we evaluated the degree of hydration of fine montmorillonite particles in different aqueous solutions by measuring the viscosities of the montmorillonite dispersions and plotting relative viscosity against volume fraction of dry montmorillonite particles in the dispersions. We investigated the effects on the hydration of montmorillonite in aqueous solutions of (1) the type and (2) the concentration of electrolytes in the solutions and (3) pH. For the same concentration of electrolytes, the hydration index I of montmorillonite was found to increase in the order of Na+ > K+ for monovalent cations and Mg2+ > Ca2+ for divalent cations, and to decrease with increasing valence of cations in the order of Na+ > Ca2+ > Al3+. For both Na+ and Ca2+, the hydration index I first increased with increasing concentration of electrolytes and then decreased after a certain concentration. The hydration index I increased with increasing pH. IntroductionClay minerals have the distinctive ability to adsorb water molecules and hydrated cations in aqueous solutions, resulting in hydration on their outer surfaces and in their interlayer spaces. Many investigators (Jurinak, 1963; Anderson and Tice, 1971; Costanzo et al., 1982; Israelachvili, 1992) had found evidence of ice-like structures of water on clay minerals.This phenomenon of hydration plays an important role in the dispersion and sedimentation of clay minerals in aqueous solutions. To understand clay hydration, numerous experimental and simulation studies have been carried out since 1933, including the recent ones of Hawkins and Egelstaff (1980), Skipper et al. (1995), Karaborni et al. (1996), Salles et al. (2013) and Morrow et al. (2013). Among the factors that can influence a clay mineral’s hydration characteristics are chemical composition, type and degree of isomorphous replacement in its structure, and number and nature of associated exchangeable cations."

Jan 1, 2015

By Syd Peng

"As the International Conference on Ground Control in Mining (ICGCM) enters its 35th year in 2015, it is time to look back and identify the areas that need to be emphasized and to look forward to see what areas need to be researched in the future. In the past three decades, ground control has made a tremendous advancement, and many case studies published in the 36 volumes of proceedings have demonstrated its important role in the daily mining operations. However, there is still plenty of room for improvements. This paper discusses the research needs in 12 subject areas, including mine geology, rock property, zones of disturbance in overburden, computer modeling, underground stress measurements, research method, roof bolting, coal pillars, failures, subsidence, shield supports, and coal bumps.INTRODUCTIONThe International Conference on Ground Control in Mining (ICGCM) was founded in 1981. Since then, 1,546 papers have been published in the 36 conference proceedings, including the three surface subsidence workshops held in the 1981, 1986, and 1992. All types of topical areas regarding mining, from geotechnical core loggings in the exploration phase through backfilling after mining to finally spoil piles stability on the surface, have been addressed. A review of these papers, and other related literature as well, indicate that ground control has developed to become an inseparable part of mine design and a problem-solving tool for safe production.After 34 years, it is time to look back and identify the areas that need to be emphasized and to look forward to see what areas need to be researched in the future. There is no doubt that the conference series has achieved the goal for which it was originally designed: to provide an annual forum for the exchange of information among the researchers, government regulators, equipment manufacturers, consultants, service providers, and—above all—mine operators. There have been many papers addressing the application of ground control techniques for successful mine design and safe production, and, without these papers, many projects would have failed. In fact, the conference emphasis on application types of papers may have steered too far toward the application side. A review of the conference papers shows that papers have been leaning mostly toward the applied side, leaving most, if not all, fundamental issues behind in nearly every topical area. This paper addresses research needs in 12 topical areas: mine geology, rock property, zones of disturbance in overburden, computer modeling, underground stress measurements, research method, roof bolting, coal pillars, failures, subsidence, shield supports, and coal bumps."

Jan 1, 2015

By Kento Miyamoto, Kazuki Imamura, Takayuki Tanaka

"Global economic development has drastically increased energy consumption in various fields, and CO2 emissions, which are a prime cause of global warming, have continued to increase. Therefore, measures for reduction of the load on the environment have been taken in various areas. Energy improvements of various types of work vessels used for offshore construction might be expected to greatly reduce consumption of fossil fuel, because many of these vessels are larger than land construction machinery and consume large amounts of fuel, which will lead to effective use of resources and alleviation of the load on the environment. However, such efforts are unusual because renewal or newbuilding of work vessels is rare. We developed a work-vessel hybrid energy system based on fuel-saving technology and use of natural energy to promote reduction of CO2 emissions for a large deep mixing barge in 2010. We developed an Automated Generator Start-Stop System, which automatically controls the number of active generators according to power demand during ground-improving work of the deep mixing barge in 2012, thus further improving the work-vessel hybrid energy system. These systems are introduced here.INTRODUCTIONIn recent years, CO2 emission, which is one of the factors of the Global Warming has been increasing. According to the report by National Institute for the Environmental Studies in Japan (2014), CO2 emission in Japan has amounted to 1,276 million tons. The industrial sector in the total emission becomes 500 million tons that is equivalent to 39%. Meanwhile, the offshore Deep Mixing Method requires work vessels mounted with a large power plant (Fig. 1). In sea ground boring, very large load acts on the deep mixing machine, and the large power is required, which results in the increase in CO2 emission. To achieve eco-friendly marine construction, the work-vessel hybrid energy system was developed. Table 1 shows specifications of the deep mixing barge with the work-vessel hybrid energy system."

Jan 1, 2015

By Luis R. Fonseca, C. Raimat, C. Wendeler, A. Sanz

"Rockfall barriers are widely known as proven efficiency element to protect infrastructure by catching the rock blocks in the falling direction and absorbing the energy generated by them.It’s common in the project design phase and during installation, fix rockfall barriers for catch a high percentage of the falling blocks and in many cases consider as valid the solution when the barrier can capture all of them. However, in many cases it’s possible to consider the use of these protections, simply to guarantee a secure shed for the traffic and intercept simply the blocks that theoretically hit the road surface.The results of the high-energy rockfall protection barriers type GBE which protect GC-200 road in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria are shown in this paper.The topographic data should be especially detailed observed and even more if you want to apply the technique of ""shadow zone"" with a flexible gallery system. It should be drawn from detailed topographic maps and drawings (photogrammetric restitution) to the scales 1/1000, 1/500, or 1/200; and it is important not to ignore the presence of vertical cuts, tracks, small slopes that modify the trajectories (trampoline effect, hard points that favor the rebounds) and which are not always presented in the drawings.The ""shadow zone"" is defined as the protected area, located at a lower elevation to the line created by the rockfall barrier to except of trajectories of rocks and free from the influence of the deflection of the system under the maximum energy level for which it was designed (MEL)."

Jan 1, 2015

By Keith A. Heasley, Christopher R. Newman

"Originally developed in 1993, LaModel has aided mining engineers and researchers alike in improving the design and safety of underground single- and multiple-seam mining operations (Heasley, 1998). Through the years (Heasley, 2011), the use and capabilities of the LaModel program have grown immensely while adapting to ground control concerns and problems within the mining industry. Presently, MSHA specifically mentions the use of LaModel for the analysis of, “complex non-typical roof control plans,” defined as either room-and-pillar retreat mining greater than 1000 feet, bump- or bounce-prone mines, or other criteria considered unusual by the District Manager (Stricklin, 2013).With an ever increasing number of users and an increase in available solution options and complex analyses, there is now a significant demand for better education and training in the practical application and detailed analysis using LaModel. This paper presents the development of an electronic user’s manual and comprehensive online training course created in an open online learning environment in order to better inform and train industry professionals as well as engineering students and new users. The development of both the user’s manual and online training course will ultimately increase the ground control design effectiveness of mining engineers, leading to safer and more productive mine designs.INTRODUCTIONOver the past 20 years, mining engineers and researchers have used the LaModel program for improving the design and safety of single- and multiple-seam mining operations. LaModel uses a laminated, displacement-discontinuity, boundary-element method which simplifies the overburden into a stack of frictionless homogeneous laminations and limits the detailed analysis to the seam itself. This approach is fundamentally simpler than either finite-element, finite-difference, or discrete-element approaches; and, therefore, the program provides a significant reduction in computational time and efficiently calculates the displacements, stresses, pillar safety factors, multiple-seam interactions, subsidence, etc. for thin-bedded deposits such as coal, salt, potash, limestone, etc. (Heasley and Salamon, 1996; Heasley and Agioutantis, 2001). The laminated overburden model in LaModel is different than previous homogeneous elastic formulations and more realistically represents the natural flexibilities of the stratified sedimentary overburden typically associated with coal seams (Heasley, 2008)."

Jan 1, 2015

By H. Karakul

Determination of P-wave velocity (Vp), which is closely related to intact rock, is a nondestructive, easy and less complicated procedure. Due to these advantages, there is an increasing trend to predict the geomechanical properties of rocks from Vp. In addition to mineral content, cementing material and porosity, degree of saturation (Sr) are also other factors influencing geomechanical properties of the intact rock. However, up to the present, in the studies on the prediction of geomechanical properties of rocks from Vp, the effect of Sr has not been investigated. By considering this issue, in this study, it was aimed to correlate strength properties (uniaxial compressive and tensile strengths) and Young’s modulus with Vp of various rock types under different degrees of saturation. In addition, geomechanical properties of rocks were estimated from theoretical P- and S-wave (Vs) velocities, which were calculated based on their mineralogical compositions. For this purpose, fourteen different rock types were collected from several parts of Turkey and a comprehensive laboratory testing program was conducted. In the statistical analyzes, a series of different prediction relationships were developed by using independent variables such as Vp, Sr and effective clay content (ECC). Simple regression analysis results indicated that although prediction of the geomechanical properties of rocks from Vp at different degrees of saturation was possible, the equations developed would yield some under- or over-predictions. On the other hand, the multivariate equations developed have very high prediction performances and are very useful tools to estimate the geomechanical properties from the measured Vp at any Sr value. In addition to mineralogy, the variation in geomechanical properties with increasing Sr is also associated with the combined effect of porosity and clay content, which is first described in this study by the term Effective Clay Content (ECC). It is also noted that strength properties of rocks at any Sr may also be estimated using the empirical relations based on the theoretical Vp and shear-wave velocity (Vs) values, which are calculated from their mineralogical compositions.

Jan 1, 2015

By Alexandra Weidle, Seffen Leppla, Rolf Katzenbach, Matthias Seip

"A lot of different deep mixing systems have been developed in the last decades for a wide spectrum of applications, e.g. retaining and foundations systems, soil improvement, sealing of toxic substances or dyke strengthening. The paper will deal with special aspects of constructions with deep mixing systems for infrastructures like soil improvement for cyclic loadings and underpinnings in difficult soil conditions by presenting cases from engineering practice.1. DEEP DRY SOIL MIXING FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT OF RAILWAY TRACKS IN VERY SOFT SOILS1.1 IntroductionRailway tracks are set into vibrations by train passing. In very soft soil this leads to long-term deformations which lead to speed limits, temporary closings and big maintenance efforts. The energy of the dynamic loading is transmitted into the soil by compression and shear waves and at the surface by rayleigh waves (Wood 1968). The expansion of the waves are influenced by•,thickness of the soft soil layer•,density of the soft soil layer•,stiffness of the soft soil layer•,saturation of the soft soil layer•,frequency of the dynamic loadingThe frequency of the dynamic loading depends on the train velocity and the distance of the wheels and wheel sets. If the frequency of the dynamic loading is in the range of the natural frequency of the soft soil layer the vibrations increase extremely (Lieberenz et al. 2003). As a result the long-term deformations will increase as well.To avoid these long-term deformations and the resulting operation restrictions and maintenance efforts an adequate soil improvement is necessary. For the optimization of the soil improvement field tests have been carried out.1.2 Experimental field testsThe field tests have been carried out at a 300 m long test track with five different setups, each 30 m long:•,test track TS 0: no soil improvement•,test track TS 1: soil improvement with single lime-cement-columns 5.9 m deep (Figure 1a)•,test track TS 2: soil improvement with single lime-cement-columns 5.9 m and 10.4 m deep (Figure 1b)"

Jan 1, 2015

By N. Demirel, O. Gölbasi

Draglines are massive machines extensively utilized in opencast mines for overburden stripping. The demanding working environment induces fractures, wear and tear, and fatigue failures in dragline components and eventuates in extended maintenance, lengthy downtimes, and loss of production. The bucket is the main source of external loads on the machinery, since interactions with ground materials take place in this region. This study aims to develop a generic finite element model of the stress on an operating bucket. This entails (i) three-dimensional modelling of a dragline bucket, (ii) analytical estimation of resistive forces in the bucket movement, (iii) three-dimensional simulation of the moving bucket using finite element analysis (FEA), and (iv) sensitivity analysis to examine the effect of formation characteristics on stress variation. Simulation results imply that the drag hitch and digging teeth are the elements of the bucket that are most prone to failure. In addition, sensitivity analysis indicates that internal friction angle of the formation is the dominant parameter leading fluctuations in stress values. Changes in stress level are least influenced by formation density.

Jan 1, 2015

By Dale Ramsey

As someone who has enjoyed photography as a hobby for many years, aerial photography to me has always been an exciting way to give a different perspective to my images. Our industry is always in search of new technology for bet­ter and more cost effective methods to improve our trade and aerial photography is a great tool to improve project planning or document its progress. It has typically involved conventional aircraft both fixed wing and helicopters but neither method is always available or cost effective. The lat­est innovation since digital imaging is the development of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or drones. But there is a lot of uncertainty with this amazing new technology’s fu­ture in the U.S. as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is under review and development of UAV regulations for commercial use which are slated to be completed in 2015.

Jan 1, 2015

By C. Legote

"This paper investigates the conditions leading to the indefinite termination of production in four critical primary panels at an underground coal mining operation, the observed shortcomings in the mining approach, and the proposed strategy to mine through the affected panels. Initial assessment of the abandoned panel conditions indicated time-dependent strata failure,(i.e. bolted roof failure overrunning intersections), which occurred from mere minutes to up to four weeks post-production, with and without prior warning of failure. This prompted the constant re-supporting of back areas, which raised safety and productivity concerns. Investigation of the initial mining conditions revealed that the failures were due to a critical combination of factors, the chief of which was isolated horizontal stress. Other factors that were initially overlooked by the mine (i.e. influence of hydraulic stress, misinterpretation of borehole data), resulted in the conditions being described as abnormal. Remedial actions were determined, and in so doing, a new strategic approach was formulated to thoroughly address all failure concerns. The four panels were explicitly planned to serve as the main intake and return airways for the recently commissioned secondary ventilation shaft, as well as providing access to millions of tons in proven coal reserves. It is thus imperative to mine the panels. A feasibility study showed that the proposed strategy set for implementation would be financially viable. Paper written as project work carried out in partial fulfilment for BEng(Mining Engineering) degree"

Jan 1, 2015

By Jürgen Antrekowitsch, Harald Osthof, Stefan Steinlechner

"In the case of feasibility assessments or feasibility studies, an important point of discussion is often how to calculate the capital (CAPEX) and operating expenditure (OPEX) of a plant. Generally, there is also the request to know how the CAPEX varies when the size of the plant is increased. Nowadays, many databases give an indication of specific equipment costs in relation to the production rate. These data are based on cost information from equipment suppliers and have to be continuously updated by the owner of the database. The approach presented here is a model which allows sizing of process equipment, for example a leach tank, based on process data in combination with the calculation of mechanical properties. Furthermore, it calculates the CAPEX based on construction material cost and adequate machining surcharges. Thus, a single cost model for a leach tank is adequate for both copper and other hydrometallurgical plants and stays valid with changing construction material prices. To summarize, the advantage of this model is the more versatile approach and thus the flexibility due to the inclusion of design aspects, process and mechanical engineering aspects and an updatable database. The database, which is in regard to material cost and is the basis for the cost estimation, is easily updatable from commonly accessible data. This model thus approaches the procedures of an engineering company when designing a plant and executing a cost calculation. INTRODUCTION Hydrometallurgy nowadays plays an important role in processing of primary and secondary resources. In copper metallurgy, hydrometallurgy accounts for roughly 20 % of worldwide primary production, especially in the case of oxide or low copper-containing ores. Zinc smelters changed their method of production from a pyrometallurgical-dominated concept decades ago to mainly hydrometallurgical routes today. Gold production processes using leaching, especially, have a long history without any development which would not be competitive if not based on hydrometallurgical concepts (Pawlek, 1983; Winnacker-Küchler, 2006)."

Jan 1, 2015

By Ho-Sung Yoon, Jyothi Rajesh Kumar, Chul-Joo Kim, Sung-Don Kim

A recovery process for rare earths (REs) such as dysprosium and neodymium from the leach liquor of permanent magnet scrap (PMS) was developed. The two hydrometallurgical routes namely liquid-liquid extraction (solvent extraction) and selective stripping were implemented. The present study deals with the separation and recovery process development by using organo-phosphorous based extractant di-(2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) as reagent for REs processing. Initial studies considered the influence of time on the extraction process, as well as pH and extractant concentration effects. This suggested the aqueous mechanism and separation factors played a role in process during development. McCabe-Thiele diagrams for extraction isotherms were developed. Counter current extraction (CCE) using various phase ratios influenced metals separation. Maximum loading capacity of the D2EHPA was determined. The loaded organic generated by the CCE process was water washed followed by a scrubbing process to remove the other metal ion from targeted metal. Finally, a stripping process was tested using various mineral acids.

Jan 1, 2015

By Roberto Folchi, Hans Wallin

Having so many norms and technical content of legislation to deal with is a problem that an explo-sives engineer has to face, especially when working at an international level. Each country has its own norms and legislation, sometimes even each other region or state, as if the physics of explo-sions, rock, concrete, and masonry characteristics would change across the borders. Both norms and laws are frequently out of date, being mainly developed at the beginning of the previous century and adjusted, piece by piece, to a technical and political context that is constantly changing, with adjustment being frequently adopted in a hurry, due to a problem arising such as that of internation-al terrorism. Sometime also, norms are not harmonized with those they intend to amend, so required explanations and new adjustments lead to a vicious circle that increases confusion, complexity and depresses the explosive industry.

Jan 1, 2015

By A. D. Hammond

"INTRODUCTION Vanadium deposits in Arizona are distributed all across the state, from the rim of the Grand Canyon to the Tombstone mining district in the southeast corner of the state (Figure 1). The combined past production of vanadium from Arizona and New Mexico ranks second nationwide, after deposits in the Colorado Plateau In the northeast corner of the state, in the Carrizo Mountains and Monument Valley of Apache and Navajo Counties, vanadium was produced as a by-product of uranium in deposits of the Salt Wash and Shinarump members of the Morrison and Chinle formations, respectively. The production took place between 1943 and 1970. Another source of vanadium in Arizona occurs in vanadate deposits associated with supergene enrichment of base-metal vein and replacement deposits. The most important vanadate mineral is vanadinite, a chloro-vanadate of lead. Presently, there are no primary mines of vanadium in the United States. In 2012, a small production of vanadium pentaoxide (V2O5) was reported as a by-product of uranium at the White Mesa uranium mine in Utah1. This paper describes vanadate deposits in Arizona with emphasis in three districts, namely, the Mammoth, Globe-Miami and Banner districts.VANADIUM EPIGENETIC DEPOSITS: VANADATES Almost all vanadium epigenetic deposits occur as vanadates in oxidized zones of lead, zinc and copper veins and replacement deposits. Vanadinite, descloizite and mottramite are the most common minerals in vanadate deposits. Descloizite is a vanadate of lead, zinc and copper. Wulfenite, a molybdate of lead is also present. These minerals replace supergene base-metal minerals, form crusts on faces of open cavities, or are inter-grown with residual clays in pockets. The vanadium content in vanadate deposits is believed to have been leached from the country rock by ground-water and transported through porous rocks until precipitating as a relatively insoluble vanadium compound or until the solution evaporated. Precipitation was brought about by local concentrations of cations of divalent lead, zinc or copper. Lead is a constituent part of almost all of vanadate deposits and the vanadium pentaoxide (V2O5) content in vanadate minerals seems to have a direct correlation with the content of lead in the hypogene mineral. Vanadate deposits are restricted almost entirely to the oxidized parts of vein or replacement deposits. It is rare that oxidized zones extend past 100 ft from the surface. Vanadate deposits are largely restricted to tropical and temperate zones and regions of dry climate. Arizona and New Mexico have the largest concentration of vanadate deposits in North America."

Jan 1, 2015