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By Suk han Jang

This paper describes the tower foundation design and construction experience for the 345kV Youngheung marine transmission line, which has been in commercial operation in Korea since July, 2004. This transmission line was designed and constructed to meet the rapidly increasing power demands of metropolitan areas and supply stable, bulk electric power from the Yonghung thermal power plant into metropolitan areas. This transmission line passes over the west sea, Lake Sihwa and over land. In order to successfully complete this project, and to safely support the tower during severe maritime conditions, several types of tower foundation such as Pad and Chimney foundation, Pier (Cylindrical) foundation, R.C.D foundation, Jacket pile foundation and Steel pipe pile + concrete mat foundation were developed and used. As the world?s first and longest marine transmission line, the 345kV Yonghung marine transmission line operates successfully, thanks to several high-tech civil engineering technologies and KEPCO?s accumulated experience.

Jan 1, 2007

By James J. Tansey

A Deep Foundations Institute meeting with the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor in March of 1984 featured legal rights under Differing Site Conditions. A workshop conducted by the authors and Gerard Ittig, Esq. added to the value of the symposium. This paper will be of interest to your attorneys in any subsurface disputes.

Jan 1, 1985

By P. J. Yttrup

Small diameter timber piles are used in Australia to solve foundation problems in soft or filled ground and expansive soil. The paper describes the results of pile load tests to develop simple methods for bearing capacity determination and observation of the performance of piles in expansive soil.

Jan 1, 1989

By Gregory A. Stephan

A case history of design, prediction, probe pile driving, and construction of a pile foundation for Building 3 of Waterside at Bay Beach Condominiums located in Fort Myers Beach, southwest Florida, is presented. Site geometry constraints, the presence of a 12.0 ft (3.6 m) deep lake occupying the southern one-third portion of the proposed building footprint, and marginal subsoils provided specific challenges for design and construction of the foundation. The subsoil conditions were explored by performing Standard Penetration Test (SPT) borings and a Piezocone Penetration Test (PCPT) Sounding to depths of 100 ft (30.5 m) within the building footprint. Additionally, borings were performed to envelope the building. Deep foundation alternatives included driven concrete, monotube, and steel pipe pile as well as drilled shaft. Following an evaluation of high structural loads, site-specific constraints, foundation test data from buildings 1 and 2, and preference expressed by the project owner, a pre-cast prestressed concrete (PPC) pile-supported foundation system was selected as an economical and effective foundation approach. Use of an augered cast-in-place (ACIP) pile foundation system was precluded by the project structural engineer. This paper deals with the design aspects and methodologies utilized in choosing and economizing the foundation system. The building foundation was designed for an allowable pile capacity of 40 tons (353 kN) in compression, 1.5 tons (12 kN) in lateral capacity for a deflection of 0.25-in (0.64 cm) and 15 tons (133 kN) in uplift capacity. For the single story extended garage structure, a pile capacity of 27 tons (238 kN) was indicated in compression. As part of the design process, an extensive probe pile driving program was carried out in order to evaluate the pile driving equipment, determine and verify pile capacities, and optimize the production pile lengths. A total of 33, 14-in (356 mm) square, PPC concrete piles were driven within the entire building limits, and dynamically load tested utilizing Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) as part of the probe pile driving program. Utilization of PDA during probe pile driving helped in predicting pile set-up (i.e., increase in pile resistance with time) as well as reducing the pile lengths by as much as 20 percent. It resulted in variable pile lengths during the production phase. This information was effectively utilized as part of the overall quality control program to install a total of 559 PPC piles (including 33 probe piles) within the Building 3 footprint, including the reclaimed lake area, to depths ranging from 45 to 58 ft (14 to 18 m) below existing ground elevation as part of the foundation support system. Prior to installation of probe or production piles, a termination criterion was established using 1-dimensional wave equation analyses in addition to the design pile embedment requirement. The predicted pile capacities compared reasonably well with the capacities from the CAPWAP analyses for probe piles. This engineered, monitored and tested foundation solution provided a cost effective and satisfactory basis for completion and approval of the foundation work for the building resulted in cost savings over other foundation alternatives for the owner. The building has since been occupied and a recent reconnaissance has indicated that the building foundations are performing satisfactorily.

Jan 1, 2003

By Shamsher Prakash

Equivalent spring constants for analysis of footings is a function of Young's modulus of pile material (Ep), shear modulus of soil (Gs), and geometry of the footing and/or piles. Shear modulus is strongly strain dependent in soils. Therefore, the spring constants are strain dependent, which is acceptable to the Geotechnical engineers. However, structural engineers prefer to use spring constants as a function of displacement, rather than strain. In order to develop these relationships, appropriate relationships between strain and displacement are needed. Also, modulus degradation with strain needs be built into these relationships. Description of spring constants kx , ky, and kz in x, y, and z direction and k?, k?, k?, about x, y, and z directions are relatively simple. However, description of kxø and ky?, the cross-coupling spring constants depend on 2 - components of displacement and rotation. Thus, there are 8 spring constants and likewise there are 8 damping constants. Approximate strain-displacement relationships on which displacement dependant k's and c's are based are presented with appropriate equations, and a numerical example is included illustrating k's and c's as functions of displacement.

Jan 1, 2002

By Claudio Asioli

"The project’s goal was to construct the Al Ghazala Intercontinental, a multi-use development in the bay area of Tripoli overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. The site of the project is located approximately 500 ft (150 m) from the Mediterranean coast, near the Al Ghazala roundabout in the town center of Tripoli, Libya. The investor of the project was Magna Properties Group, Ltd. – Libya, the main contractor was Man Enterprise S.A.L., and the design and construction management was performed by Dar Al-Handasah Engineering. Trevi S.p.A. was contracted to perform the design and construction of the anchored diaphragm walls and dewatering systems for the excavation of a two-level basement car park, which extends across the full footprint of the site.The site was approximately 640 ft by 230 ft (195 m by 70 m) in plan and nearly flat. The groundwater level typically varies from about 11 ft to 23 ft (3.4 m to 7.0 m) above mean sea level. To construct the required raft foundation, it was necessary to excavate the area down to El. -15.7 ft to -26.3 ft (-4.8 m to -8.0 m), which resulted in an excavation depth ranging from about 27 ft to 39 ft (8.3 m to 12.0 m) below the existing ground surface.Subsurface ConditionsThe subsurface site investigation was performed in three phases by Al-Tamier Engineering Consulting Bureau. During Phase 1, a preliminary investigation was undertaken during the early stages of the project to obtain information about the general stratigraphy and groundwater level at the site. Phase 2 was performed to obtain subsurface information and design parameters, and Phase 3 was performed as a supplementary ground investigation to investigate unexpected ground conditions identified during Phase 2. In total, 14 boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from about 80 ft to 180 ft (24 to 55 m). The generalized subsurface profile is quite heterogeneous, and is predominantly composed of sand with silt and gravel that is underlain by limestone, calcarenite and claystone"

Jan 1, 2017

By Claudio Asioli

"The project’s goal was to construct the Al Ghazala Intercontinental, a multi-use development in the bay area of Tripoli overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. The site of the project is located approximately 500 ft (150 m) from the Mediterranean coast, near the Al Ghazala roundabout in the town center of Tripoli, Libya. The investor of the project was Magna Properties Group, Ltd. – Libya, the main contractor was Man Enterprise S.A.L., and the design and construction management was performed by Dar Al-Handasah Engineering. Trevi S.p.A. was contracted to perform the design and construction of the anchored diaphragm walls and dewatering systems for the excavation of a two-level basement car park, which extends across the full footprint of the site.The site was approximately 640 ft by 230 ft (195 m by 70 m) in plan and nearly flat. The groundwater level typically varies from about 11 ft to 23 ft (3.4 m to 7.0 m) above mean sea level. To construct the required raft foundation, it was necessary to excavate the area down to El. -15.7 ft to -26.3 ft (-4.8 m to -8.0 m), which resulted in an excavation depth ranging from about 27 ft to 39 ft (8.3 m to 12.0 m) below the existing ground surface. Subsurface ConditionsThe subsurface site investigation was performed in three phases by Al-Tamier Engineering Consulting Bureau. During Phase 1, a preliminary investigation was undertaken during the early stages of the project to obtain information about the general stratigraphy and groundwater level at the site. Phase 2 was performed to obtain subsurface information and design parameters, and Phase 3 was performed as a supplementary ground investigation to investigate unexpected ground conditions identified during Phase 2. In total, 14 boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from about 80 ft to 180 ft (24 to 55 m). The generalized subsurface profile is quite heterogeneous, and is predominantly composed of sand with silt and gravel that is underlain by limestone, calcarenite and claystone."

Jan 1, 2017

By S. D. Zhang

The first reinforced earth railway bridge abutment in China has been successfully constructed of September, 1985 under the supervision of the Reinforced Earth Researth Group of Shanghai Institute of Railway Technology. In order to verify the reliability of the designed structure and its behaviuors, the 1:10 reduced scale model tests in laboratory and field tests on the actual structure during construction were proceeded. Various loads of different positions were charged, the vertical and lateral earth pressure in the filling soil, the stresses developed in the reinforcements, and the deformations of the models or the actual structure were recorded in those tests. The behaviors recorded are presented and discussed in this paper.

Jan 1, 2010

By James J. Neate

The augered cast-in-place pile system came into use in the late 1940's where various techniques were tried using pressure grouting methods. In the early development stages some piles were installed using the preplaced aggregate concrete system. As development continued it became more apparent that placement of coarse aggregate was more costly than making a pile out of a cement and sand mixture only. Various techniques were tried consisting of pumping structural grout into an open hole through a pipe left in the bottom of the hole, drilling or driving a pipe in close proximity to the tip elevation of the auger or in working a pipe down adjacent to the auger fluting. For these techniques the pipe was usually withdrawn after grout appeared at the surface. In 1951 a patent was applied for by Raymond Patterson describing the above techniques along with a technique for placement of grout using a hollow stem auger and a removable plug or lead bit at the tip of the auger. The plug or lead bit was removed by grout pressure and this would be an expendable item for each pile placed. The patent was granted in 1956 and patent rights were assigned to Intrusion-Prepakt, Inc. Shortly thereafter other contractors were granted licenses to utilize the system. Patent coverage expired in 1973 and this method now is in the public domain. Today the method is in wide use throughout the world and is particularly well accepted in Japan and England.

Jan 1, 1988

By William D. Spielvogel

The Massachusetts Highway Department awarded the Porter Street Outfall Project to the J.M. Cashman Company in November 1991. Timely completion of the Project in one and one half years is critical to the start of the subsequent Third Harbor Tunnel North Approach project. Existing subsurface conditions and the Project's location at Boston's Logan International Airport significantly increases the difficulty of construction. The major contractual work involves relocating a reinforced concrete double box culvert supported on a continuous wood pile foundation. This existing culvert crosses and interferes with the future Third Harbor Tunnel North Approach alignment. Two parallel culverts constructed approximately 20 feet from either side of the future Third Harbor Tunnel alignment replace the existing double box culvert structure. Under the original contract design, approximately 3,100 feet of 14 ft. by 15 ft. reinforced concrete culvert is cast in place adjacent to the west side of the Third Harbor Tunnel and is located in the center of the Airport's main service roadway, Harborside Drive. This culvert is the Porter Street Combined Sewer, PSCS, which handles a combined flow of sewerage from the East Boston community and storm water runoff from Logan Airport. In addition, approximately 2,230 feet of 17 ft. by 15 ft. reinforced concrete culvert is cast in place adjacent to the east side of the Third Harbor Tunnel and is within 20 feet of an active aircraft taxiway and heliport. This culvert is the Bird Island Flats Storm Drain, BIFSD, which handles storm water runoff from the Logan Airport airfield. The existing outfall, on the west side of the Third Harbor Tunnel alignment is to remain in service and is to be connected to the new PSCS and BIFSD culverts. Therefore, a portion of the BIFSD culvert is designed as a bridge to span 128 ft. across the Third Harbor Tunnel excavation during construction.

Jan 1, 1994

By Robert B. Bittner

The Sutong Bridge across the lower Yangtze River in China will have, when completed, the longest span (1,088 m) and the highest towers (306 m) of any cable stayed span in the world. The foundations for this record setting span will also be record setting. They are located in water depths exceeding 30 m with maximum flows exceeding 3 m/sec. The soil at the site of the main pylons consists of layers of silty sands and silty clays extending to bed rock at 270 m below river elevation. This paper describes the innovative methods used by the team of foundation designers and constructors to support this record setting bridge at this very challenging site. This paper covers three specific topics related to the foundations of the Sutong Bridge: ? Design and construction of the 131 drilled shafts (2.8/2.5 m diameter and 114/117 m long) under each of the two main pylons, including the post-grouting of all drilled shaft tips. ? Design and construction of the scour protection for the two main pylons. ? Construction methods used to construct the waterline pile caps (113.8 m by 48.1 m by 13.3 m deep) under each pylon.

Jan 1, 2007

By Harpal Parmar

This paper evaluates dynamic methods of pile capacity prediction by comparing their results to static load test results. Dynamic and static pile load test data were assembled from four southeastern states of the U.S. End-of-drive and restrike capacities were evaluated using the Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) and by wave equation (WEAP) analyses. These were compared to static (Davisson criterion) loads. The best comparison was obtained for restrike PDA results; restrike wave equation analyses values also compared well. The end-of-drive results for both methods-showed relatively poor comparisons. The PDA was recognized as an important tool to measure energy transferred to the pile; this transferred energy was recognized as an uncertainty when conducting wave equation analyses. A statistical analysis showed restrike capacity results to be associated with higher precision and accuracy as compared to end-of-drive methods. The authors believe that restrike dynamic testing is essential to establish long term static soil strength and that it will lead to accurate and cost-effective design of piles.

Jan 1, 1996

By Michael W. Neill, O&apos

The engineering profession generally does not accept vibro-driven piles as bearing piles unless their capacities can be verified by restriking with an impact hammer, which significantly reduces the economic benefits of vibratory driving. In part, the concern for capacity development in piles driven by vibration arises out of observations that vibro-driven piles do not develop capacities equivalent to those driven by impact (e. g., Mosher, 1987). Nonetheless, if capacities are predictable, vibratory installation may be more cost effective than installation by impact, due to savings in time of installation, even if capacities are lower than those of impact-driven piles. Throughout the past few decades, a number of attempts have been made to develop capacity prediction methods for vibro-driven piles, mostly along the same lines as methods for impact-driven piles. That is, (1) totally empirical formulae, (2) power balance / power transfer formulae, and (3) "time domain-nonlinear" (TDN) computational procedures such as the wave equation. Some of the formulae have been based partly on field experience, but the majority have been developed from simple theoretical models with parameters evaluated from laboratory studies. Neither these formulae nor the TDN solutions have been systematically checked (or modified) by recording appropriate field data over a variety of site

Jan 1, 1989

By Bosco Poon, Kim Chan, Luis Raúl Castañeda, Geoff McKay

"Driven steel tubular piles of up to 2 m diameter have been used to support abutments and piers of a bridge over Nambucca River and floodplain. The bridge was designed by Arup-Aurecon Design Joint Venture (Lead Designers) with GHD leading the geotechnical design assessment in conjunction with Acciona Ferrovial Joint Venture (AFJV – Principal Contractor). Piles were to be driven through alluvium and founded on foliated Phyllite bedrock. The large diameter piles posed significant challenges on bearing capacity assessment and pile acceptance criteria, especially for anisotropic rock strength. Prior to pile driving, boreholes were drilled at each pile location, accompanied with a suite of rock index and UCS testing. AFJV and GHD oversaw geotechnical construction verification. All production piles were monitored with a Pile-Driving-Analyser to manage driving stresses and pile termination. Wave matching CAPWAP analyses were performed on 40% of the piles at the end-ofdrive, or restrike, to satisfy specification requirements and limit over-driving. This paper presents discussions on the design and construction of the driven piles with findings from the extensive dynamic pile data obtained. Based on the shaft resistance distribution and toe resistance obtained from CAPWAP analysis, the mobilised pile shaft frictions fs of the soil / rock materials, as well as the end bearing fb of the founding Phyllite bedrock, are examined. The impact of the rock fabric foliation angle on the m obilised fb, and the relationship between rock strength and the mobilised fs are outlined.INTRODUCTIONThe Bridge over Nambucca River consists of a single bridge structure, comprising single substructures and separate superstructures. The 850 m long bridge facilitates the crossing of the Northbound and Southbound carriageways of the Pacific Highway Upgrade over Nambucca River, with central median barriers, separated by a horizontal clearance of 50 mm. The bridge is required to span over the Nambucca River, which is a navigational channel, and over the adjacent floodplains, including two local access roads and the existing Pacific Highway. The bridge superstructure consists of 21 simply supported spans, each comprises four 2.25 m deep precast post-tensioned U-Girders, with two girders across the width of each carriageway. The spans of girders vary from eleven spans of 39.5m and ten spans of 41.5 m. The floodplain section of the bridge was founded on up to 2m diameter steel tubular piles, designed to be driven through alluvial sediments and weak rock to nominal refusal on sound rock. Dynamic load testing using wave matching CAPWAP (CAse Pile Wave Analysis Program) analyses in conjunction with PDA (Pile Driving Analyser) were used to verify the pile integrity and mobilised capacity. This paper discusses geotechnical aspects associated with design and construction of driven piles. The methodology developed for construction to verify pile capacity and to meet acceptance criteria is outlined. Based on the shaft resistance distribution and toe resistance obtained from CAPWAP analysis, the mobilised pile shaft friction, fs of the soil / rock materials, as well as the end bearing, fb of the founding Phyllite bedrock, are examined. The impact of the rock fabric foliation angle on the mobilised fb, and the relationship between rock strength and the mobilised fs are outlined."

Jan 1, 1900

By J. M. Pei

In this paper, the nonlinear finite element analysis is used to study the support system of a tunnel which is designed to pass through deep-embeded stratum. The rock mass is rather intact, though a section of tunnel will pass through the weak belt. Under the influence of the high ground stress, the condition of stability and the form of support become complicate. This paper, talcing into account the nonlinear properties of rock mass and the Interaction between rock, and support, makes a comparison between the two kinds of soft and rigid support systems, and analysed the changes of their bearing forces.

Jan 1, 2010

By Christopher J. Pacitto

This paper presents a case history of an engineered, monitored, and tested program that provided an effective and satisfactory basis for the completion of pile foundations for Twin Dolphins 1 at La Peninsula Condominiums located in the Isles of Capri in southwest Florida, U.S.A. An 8-story building (withl-story parking underneath) along with recreational facilities (such as a swimming pool and tennis courts) had been planned for final construction. Following an evaluation of various foundation alternatives, a precast prestressed concrete (PPC) pile-supported system was selected. The building foundations were designed for pile capacities of 445kN (50 tons) and 890kN (100 tons) in compression and 133kN (15 tons) in uplift. A test pile program was performed to provide site-specific pile driving data, verify design assumptions, determine production pile lengths, and evaluate pile driving criteria. A total of 24, 356 mm (14-in.) square, 19.8 m (65 ft) PPC concrete piles were driven and dynamically load tested utilizing a Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) within the building limits. Dynamic monitoring during probe pile installation and restriking was performed to estimate the ultimate capacity of the piles and to evaluate driving stresses during installation. CAPWAP analyses were preformed on PDA data to better estimate pile capacity, resistance distribution, and predict pile freeze (increase in pile resistance with time) and thus optimized the production pile lengths. Upon completion of probe pile installation, 12 of the probe piles were tested using the Pile Echo Tester (PET) function of the Pile Integrity Sonic Analyzer (PISA). PET testing was performed to evaluate the integrity of piles which had exhibited high driving stresses during PDA testing. Information gathered during the probe pile driving program was effectively utilized as part of the overall quality control program to install a total of 539 PPC piles (including 24 probe piles) within the building limits at the project site to depths ranging from 9.1 to 19.8 m (30 to 65 ft) below the existing ground elevation as part of the foundation support system. Prior to installation of probe or production piles, a termination criterion was established using 1-dimensional wave equation analyses in addition to the design pile embedment requirement. The predicted pile capacities compared very well with the capacities from the CAPWAP analysis for probe piles. Use of geotechnical instrumentation and PDA assisted technology enabled each foundation support element to be constructed to its optimum capacity and at optimum cost. Furthermore, by using PDA the consultant was able to quantify a difficult to measure geotechnical phenomenon termed "pile freeze" which eliminated costly overdriving and unnecessary splicing of piles.

Jan 1, 2002

By Dan Brown

This paper presents a case study of a cyclic lateral pile load testing program performed on two 18-in square prestressed concrete piles (PSC) in Savannah, Georgia. The load test program was developed to simulate the lateral behavior of a single pile under seismic loading conditions for the design and construction of a large LNG storage tank. The lateral load tests included cyclic loading to measure possible degradation in soil response followed by static loading to large displacements (around 6 inches at the loading point). The lateral load was applied through a reciprocating jack positioned to push and pull the piles against each other. The test piles were instrumented with multiple displacement transducers, downhole inclinometer, and strain gauges. This paper provides an interpretation of the test results regarding the pile performance and soil response to monotonic and cyclic lateral loading. A backfitted computational model of the soil resistance was developed to match the test results using the LPILE computer program. The load-deflection and deflection/moment versus depth comparisons suggest that this model appears to capture the behavior relatively well within the general range of suitability for design purposes. New design curves were developed based on the soil parameters derived from the lateral load test results.

Jan 1, 2003

By Jorge Beim

Helical Piles are increasingly being used to support and rehabilitate structures subjected to compressive axial loads. Traditionally, empirical correlations between installation torque and load capacity of helical screw piles are used as the field quality control. Load tests, however, are always recommended to validate the installation process and design methodology. This paper describes a test program performed on helical piles installed at the National Geotechnical Experimentation Site of the University of Massachusetts - Amherst campus (UMass-Amherst), well known for its deep varved clay deposit. Seven of these piles were submitted to Dynamic Load Tests using the Pile Driving Analyzer® (PDA), and also to Static Load Tests. Good agreements were obtained between the results of the dynamic and static load tests, encouraging the use of the former testing method as a viable alternative to the latter for determining the compressive load capacity of helical piles installed in cohesive soils. The results of the load tests were also compared to the predictions based on torque correlations, resulting in correlation coefficients which were higher than the ones traditionally used.

Jan 1, 2012

By Han Xuanjiang

Through whole analysis of static testing piles information of a teaching building, this paper put for ward that when the ratioes of unload rebound amount to residual deformation and to total settlement reach the maximum, the testing load is selected as allowable capacity of single pile by camparing with the settlement in the practical engineering, it is proved that this method fits to practice, for other several projects, its also available. Therefore non-destructive testing pile method was improved, so all the tested piles can be reused as engineering piles.

Jan 1, 1991

By Ziyad Abunada, David O’Connor, Fei Jin, Abir Al-Tabbaa

"In-situ remediation of contaminated land with deep mixing can enable a multi-technique remedial strategy on the same site combining low permeability barriers, permeable reactive barriers, stabilisation/ solidification treatments as well as ground improvement, delivering significant advantages over alternative strategies. This was the core objective of Project SMiRT (Soil Mix Remediation Technology) which involved the execution of the largest research field trials in the UK to date to provide field validation for this technique. Around 800m3 of soil were treated on a contaminated site in Yorkshire in May 2011 with 6 different treatments, testing ~40 binder compositions and 10 different installation methodologies. Field monitoring, testing and coring activities at the site took place within the first 2 months after treatment and then again at 34 months after treatment. This paper presents an overview of the field activities to date and some 3-year results and assessment of a subset of the treated soil sections. Some good correlations are seen together with some clear differences between treatments. There is generally an observed consistency with depth, with the mixing effectiveness having a more profound effect than the binder composition or content, within the tested materials and ranges. These field trial activities are currently being used in the development of the full-scale commercial remedial strategy for the site.INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF PROJECT SMiRTWhile there are strong financial and environmental incentives to remediate and redevelop brownfield sites there are also barriers including fear of the unknown, regulatory control, delays, increased costs and the stigma associated with such sites. Hence the remediation process needs to be conducted in such a way to maximise the incentives and overcome the barriers, which is how deep mixing found its niche in the land remediation market. Soil mix technology is such a versatile technique that can perform a number of remediation treatments on the same site. These include low permeability in-ground barriers (cut-off walls), permeable reactive barriers (PRB), stabilisation/solidification (S/S) treatments, other additive related remediation, e.g. in-situ chemical oxidation and bioremediation, as well as soil amendments for greening and also ground improvement all on the same site (Al-Tabbaa et al, 2011). Placed in the context of alternative solutions, soil mix technology could potentially replace the five techniques shown in Figure 1, which would be required to deliver the same treatments mentioned above. Treatment trains strategy, where a combination of techniques in succession are used to both reduce the contamination levels and deal with residual contamination, is becoming common in land remediation and the use of one set of equipment to deliver this would bring about significant financial advantages. In addition, soil mix technology has many other advantages in terms of speed of implementation, elimination of exposure to contamination, elimination of off-site disposal and low cost. Soil mix technology for the remediation of contaminated land emerged in the UK in the mid 1980s and has since been employed in over 30 or so projects, which far exceeds its application to ground improvement for which only a handful of jobs have been carried out to date."

Jan 1, 2015