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A201 aluminium alloy is a high strength casting alloy with a nominal composition of Al-4.6Cu-0.3Mg-0.6Ag. It is strengthened by the O(Al2Cu) phase and the ??(Al2Cu) phase during heat treatment. Further strengthening of this alloy system can be obtained through the addition of transition elements, but care must be taken as other elements might have adverse effects on the mechanical properties. The objective of this study is to determine the influence of Mn on the tensile properties of rheo-processed Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloy A201. ThermoCalc software was used to predict the different phases that can be expected in the alloys, and scanning electron microscopy(SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was used to investigate the actual phases that formed. The influence of these phases on tensile properties is quantified. SEM and ThermoCalc revealed that there is an increased amount of the Al20Cu2Mn3 with increasing Mn. The tensile properties showed that high amounts of Mn do have adverse effects on the tensile properties of alloy A201, especially the ductility. Keywords Semi-solid metal (SSM) forming, alloy A201, intermetallics, Al20Cu2Mn3

Jan 1, 2011

By D. J. Fourie

During the production of pure TiO2for the pigment industry, ilmenite, containing 35?60% TiO2, is reduced to high titania slag, containing 70?95% ?TiO2? and pig iron. The high titania slag produced, consists mainly of titanium in different oxidation states and FeO in equilibrium with liquid iron. To predict the phase and chemical reaction equilibria in a furnace, a suitable solution model is required with accurately determined binary interaction parameters, as slag melts tend to behave very non-ideally. This paper investigates two popular slag models, namely, modified quasi-Chemical (MQC) model and the cell model and provides the binary interaction parameters based on recently published data of the ternary system and critically assessed published unary and binary data. Very few modelling results have been published on the ternary Ti-Fe-O system pertaining to high titanium slags. The solution models, with their regressed interaction parameters, can subsequently be implemented in commercial software of the slag-metal phase equilibria to predict how much and which type of solids will precipitate for a given bulk slag chemistry and operating temperature or, alternatively, above which temperature should a furnace be operated to avoid excessive solids precipitation.

Jan 1, 2005

By Haiping Sun, Samir Ganguly, Oleg Ostrovski, M. Yaser Lone

Wettability of graphite by synthetic SiO2-Al2O3-CaO-MnO slags with varied MnO content and by industrial slags was studied at 1350-1600 °C using sessile drop method under argon atmosphere. Initial contact angle was the lowest (110-115o) for the MnO-free slag. For slags with 10-40 wt% MnO, the initial contact angle was in the range 125-135o. The contact angle decreased with the contact time. The change in the contact angle with slag mass was found insignificant. The surface tension of slags obtained from the drop shape analyses was 500-800 mN/m and varied in a narrow range with temperature and MnO concentration. The reduction rate increased with increasing MnO content in the synthetic slag from 20 wt% to 40wt% and temperature. Increasing temperature also increased the rate of reduction. No correlation was observed between the reduction rate and MnO content in the synthetic slags in the range 0-20 wt% and in the industrial slags. The rate of SiO2 reduction from the molten slag was close to the rate of MnO reduction. The MnO-free slag had the largest contact area with graphite substrate. Keywords: reduction, wettability, graphite, slag, manganese, surface tension.

Jan 1, 2007

By K. P. Kavun, M. N. Denisov

Discussed in the paper is the redesigned reserve/resource classification for solid minerals being put forth by the authors to replace the acting Russian classification of 19961. The new version is based on the traditional foundations of former Russian classifications and the principles of the ‘McKelvey box’, both categorizing mineral resources according to the degree of geological assurance and economic viability. Based on these approaches the classification deliberately deals with both reserve and resource categories very similar to those established by the Geneva Accords in terms of definitions implied. The authors proceed from the UN-ECE proposed concept of ‘reserves’ being a part of ‘total resources’ explored in great detail by geological and feasibility studies and economically mineable at the time of reporting. The draft classification distinguishes ‘proved’, ‘probable’ and ‘possible’ categories of reserves depending on the stage of feasibility assessment carried out, i.e. the degree of detail and accuracy with which modifying factors affecting mineability of an orebody are taken into account. The reserves are regarded as a product of feasibility assessment of ‘measured’, ‘indicated’ and ‘inferred’ resources. The portions of them not having been classified as ‘reserves’ are regarded as composed of two classes: ‘subeconomic’ and ‘potentially economic’ resources (or ‘resource base’). All the cells of the classification matrix are provided with traditional for Russia alphanumeric designations and appropriate UNFC codes. The classification scheme recommended is viewed as a step forward in improvement of the State inventory and reporting mineral resources in market conditions, conducive to cross-border professional collaboration in the field of providing reliable information on the mineral rawmaterials base of the world’s economy. Besides, it recommends an easy way to get rid of amethodological error in the UNFC classification scheme where consecutive stages of geologicalexploration are identified with a single inherent degree of geological assurance. Keywords: mineral resources, mineral reserves, classification, geological assurance, feasibility studies, subeconomic resources, undiscovered resources, competent person.

Jan 1, 2003

By R. Hummel

When the slope angles of the southern side of the Venetia open pit were required to be flattened by some 20 degrees after an analysis completed by De Beers geotechnical engineering in conjunction with SRK, the additional waste stripping tonnage generated was in the order of some 70 million tons. The potential cost of having to move this tonnage had a significantly negative effect on the Net Present Value of Venetia Mine, challenging the viability of the third pushback and rendering a potential fourth pushback completely uneconomic. This paper details some of the innovation that went into the design and planning process undertaken to virtually negate the instantaneous effect of the flattened slope angles and the associated waste tonnage as well as further improve the NPV of Venetia Mine and bring the fourth pushback back into economic viability. This process has become known as NPV+ and is anon going exercise in waste reduction/deferment and revenue advancement.

Jan 1, 2001

By A. Kale

A chlorination pilot plant having capacity to produce 5?10 kg/hr of titanium tetrachloride is in operation at the chlorination facility in Mintek. The bubbling fluid bed chlorination plant can be operated in batch and/or continuous process to study the chlorination kinetics of various feedstocks. The chlorination of titaniferrous ores to produce titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) was carried out during the commissioning of the pilot plant and also as part of the titanium programme carried out at Mintek. TiCl4 is a basic raw material for producing commercial titanium dioxide pigment and titanium metal. This paper discusses the challenges faced during the commissioning and operation of the chlorination pilot plant. It also discusses the effect on the auxiliary facilities and instrumentation as a result of the harsh operating conditions of +1000°C and use of corrosive gases like chlorine and titanium tetrachloride. It discusses the effect of physico-chemical properties of the titanium tetrachloride and iron chlorides. The effect on the chlorinator refractory lining due to heating and cooling of the chlorinator is also discussed. Besides the special provisions made during the design of the chlorinator, this paper also discusses the operational experience and possible solutions to be implemented in future. Keywords Fluid bed chlorination, titanium ore chlorination, titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) production using fluid bed technology.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. West

For many years line-of-sight (LOS) issues for underground mobile equipment is a growing focus of research. This research is a result of the numerous fatalities and injuries which occur in the mining industry and which are related to poor operator LOS. Three assessment methods are currently used to assess operator LOS of underground mobile equipment. The light filament (LF) method is a hands-on assessment method that is performed in the field. This method is not evaluated in this paper. The laser scan (LS) method of assessing equipment is a quick and reliable method that comes from the need to evaluate vehicles already located in the field. The computer simulation (CS) method can assess LOS issues using a computer aided drawing (CAD) model, which is useful for assessing current or prototype models. The purpose of the current research is to compare and validate different operator LOS assessment methods. Comparison of the results of the LS and CS visibility plots yielded similar quantifiable results. A visual comparison of the results further illustrate that the LS and CS methods are acceptable assessment tools for mobile equipment operator LOS evaluation. The visibility assessment methods are now being prepared as guidelines for the mining industry to assess current and potential designs.

Jan 1, 2007

By J. West

For many years line-of-sight (LOS) issues for underground mobile equipment is a growing focus of research. This research is a result of the numerous fatalities and injuries which occur in the mining industry and which are related to poor operator LOS. Three assessment methods are currently used to assess operator LOS of underground mobile equipment. The light filament (LF) method is a hands-on assessment method that is performed in the field. This method is not evaluated in this paper. The laser scan (LS) method of assessing equipment is a quick and reliable method that comes from the need to evaluate vehicles already located in the field. The computer simulation (CS) method can assess LOS issues using a computer aided drawing (CAD) model, which is useful for assessing current or prototype models. The purpose of the current research is to compare and validate different operator LOS assessment methods. Comparison of the results of the LS and CS visibility plots yielded similar quantifiable results. A visual comparison of the results further illustrate that the LS and CS methods are acceptable assessment tools for mobile equipment operator LOS evaluation. The visibility assessment methods are now being prepared as guidelines for the mining industry to assess current and potential designs.

Jan 1, 2007

By Q. P. Campbell

The high final total moisture content of fine coal after mining and processing is one of the major reasons that this resource is not extensively used in subsequent power generation, combustion, or other conversion processes. Some coal products, like export coal, may be subjected to a variety of environmental conditions during transport and storage, such as temperature and humidity. To understand the mechanisms by which moisture is attracted and held on and within fine coal particles, further information is needed regarding the processes occurring at the coal surface. In order to determine the correlation between physical coal properties and its moisture adsorption and desorption characteristics, a series of sorption experiments were conducted on various coal samples under climatically controlled conditions. Equilibrium moisture data was collected while changing the temperature and humidity. This data was correlated to coal properties such as particle size, porosity, maceral composition, and mineral content. All the coals that were studied were medium-rank bituminous coals. It was found that the best predictors for moisture adsorption and desorption were the mineral and inertinite contents. Keywords moisture, adsorption, desorption, fine coal, surface properties.

Nov 1, 2013

The paper provides a brief review of a multivariate uniform conditioning and a localized multivariate uniform conditioning (LMUC) technique, and presents a production reconciliation case study based on a porphyry copper-gold deposit in Peru. The reconciliation study compares the longterm LMUC mineral resources model (typical of new mining projects, which are invariably based on drilling data on a relatively large grid) to the corresponding production blast-hole grade control model, as well as the final plant production.

Jan 1, 2014

By R. E. Wilmot

The problem of corrosion of reinforcement in concrete structures is internationally recognised and represents the single biggest expenditure in the preservation of steel reinforced concrete structures. While the corrosion protection of the reinforcing steel is no substitute for design and the placement of good quality concrete, it does provide for a viable and economical extension of structural integrity and service life in the day-to-day and practical environment in which concrete structures are constructed. The mechanism of corrosion attack and consequent deterioration of reinforced concrete structures is well understood and documented. New structures can be designed and built to withstand corrosion. However, due to short-term economical restraints, many new reinforced concrete structures continue to suffer as a result of corrosion damage, which results from the corrosion of the steel reinforcing. This paper explores the economic and practical benefits offered by the application of hot dip galvanizing as a viable means of protecting reinforcing steel concrete structures. The paper also discusses technical misconceptions that exist with respect to the application and performance provided by the use of hot dip galvanized reinforcing steel.

Jan 1, 2006

By D. van Rensburg

Jointed rock slopes are generally stable, as there is no freedom of movement for blocks of rock. In an open- pit mining environment, blasting opens up space into which blocks of rock can fail, resulting in the common occurrence of slope failure. Prior to the blasting of a trim pattern, the immediate highwall is scaled, where loose rock material is removed by means of a mechanical scaler. As mining of the pit progresses, the height of the scaled highwall from the pit floor progressively increases. These highwalls are never scaled again for the remainder of the pit life, and time-dependant deterioration contributes to these highwalls becoming subject to rockfall and, sometimes, slope failure. This paper documents the development of a South African innovation, a remote-controlled mechanical highwall scaler, a world first for the mining industry. The scaler will enable open-pit highwalls to be scaled from crest to toe whenever the need arises. It will reduce the risk associated with highwalls and deliver on the Anglo American promise of producing safe, profitable platinum.

Jan 1, 2012

By H. F. Niemand, C. J. Postma, P. L. Crouse

"SynopsisThe separation of zirconium and hafnium is essential in the nuclear industry, since zirconium alloys for this application require hafnium concentrations of less than 100 ppm. The separation is, however, very difficult due to the numerous similarities in the chemical and physical properties of these two elements.Traditional methods for separation of zirconium and hafnium rely predominantly on wet chemical techniques, e.g. solvent extraction. In contrast to the traditional aqueous chloride systems, the AMI zirconium metal process developed by Necsa focuses on dry fluoride-based processes. Dry processes have the advantage of producing much less hazardous chemical waste.In the proposed AMI process, separation is effected by selective sublimation of the two tetrafluorides in an inert atmosphere under controlled conditions, and subsequent selective desublimation. Estimates are made for the sublimation rates of the two tetrafluorides based on the equilibrium vapour pressures. A sublimation model, based on the sublimation rates, was developed to determine if the concept of separation by sublimation and subsequent desublimation is theoretically possible.IntroductionZirconium requires several purification steps to conform to nuclear-grade specifications. Little information is available on the sublimation separation of Zr and Hf compounds, especially in the fluoride form, the majority of which deals with sublimation under vacuum conditions. On the industrial scale, only vacuum sublimation of ZrF4 has been reported. No records were found for the sublimation of ZrF4 in an inert atmosphere. Information on the sublimation rate of ZrF4 or HfF4 in an inert atmosphere is also limited. The rate is assumed to be dependent on several factors, of which temperature, area, and composition are considered the most important."

Jan 1, 2015

Sandsloot open pit is situated on the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, 250 km north east of Johannesburg, South Africa. Sandsloot is currently the largest open pit platinum mine in the world and is one of six potential open pits in the area. The geotechnical strength properties of the Platreef have posed significant mining and processing challenges to the PPRust operation since inception in 1992. In order to optimize the whole business as opposed to isolated cost centres a mine to mill initiative was embarked upon in 1997. Initial work focused on ore characterization and an entire suite of data was collected for each rock type. This included mineralogy, geochemistry, geotechnical, blast ability indices, as well as metallurgical strength data. The second phase involved the clear definition of customer requirements, namely the optimum performance criteria for the plant and mining departments. This involved extensive field trials and data capture to measure the interaction and influence of the mine to mill value chain. Once the design targets were defined, a 3D geotechnical model was constructed to ensure that the targets were consistently achieved. The model is very similar to an ore reserve model; however, it is populated with geotechnical, metallurgical and blast index data. Through software queries the appropriate blast powder factor for each mining block can be obtained, thereby ensuring the correct fragmentation is blasted for the plant and mining operation. The initiative has delivered significant results showing improvements across the mine to mill value chain. These include increased loading rates, reduced electricity and crushing consumables, as well as higher plant throughput. Additionally, the initiative has benefited both brownfield and greenfield projects on the PPRust operation

Jan 1, 2006

By C. J. Van Niekerk

The study comprised of the investigation into the sensitization characteristics of AISI 409 titanium stabilized ferritic stainless steel during low heat input welding. AISI 409 is a fully ferritic stainless steel used in catalytic converters and tubing for automotive exhaust systems due to the supposition that sensitization does not occur during low heat input welding. Two plates of 2 and 4 mm were tested for sensitization during low heat input welding. The study confirmed that chromium carbide (M23C6) precipitation occurs on the grain boundaries in the heat-affected zone with consequent depletion of Cr adjacent to the grain boundaries during welding. In the 2 mm plate sensitization occurred in the heat input range of 0.1 kJ/mm to above 0.25 kJ/mm and in the 4 mm plate sensitization occurred in the heat input range of 0.2 to 0.9 kJ/mm. Ti stabilization is ineffective at the heat inputs used in this investigation due to the rapid cooling rate through the temperature region where TiC precipitates. The presence of N was found to be detrimental since it consumes Ti on cooling, forming TiN, effectively lowering the amount of Ti available for TiC formation during rapid cooling after welding. Annealing for 5 minutes at 725°C does not improve the sensitization characteristics of the welded plate. There is a linear increase in grain size as heat input increases. The resistance to pitting corrosion decreases in the sensitized, welded plate in theheat-affected zone adjacent to the fusion line of welding. Keywords AISI 409 ferritic stainless steel, sensitization, grain growth, resistance to pitting corrosion, low heat input welding.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. N. Van der Merwe, M. Mathey

"The South African squat coal pillar strength formula, developed by researchers from the Chamber of Mines Research Organization in the 1980s, predicts an exponential increase in coal pillar strength once a critical width-to-height ratio of 5 is exceeded. The arguments that have been proposed in favour of this formula are discussed critically in this paper.Field experience with squat pillars in the USA and evidence from published physical, analytical, and numerical model pillar studies corroborate the fact that a squat effect is unlikely to occur in coal pillars at width-to-height ratios less than 10. Furthermore, an exponential increase in peak strength of coal pillars does not exist. An alternative design criterion for squat pillars in South Africa is therefore suggested. IntroductionFive decades of coal pillar research in South Africa have produced a wealth of information on the mechanisms contributing to the strength and failure of in-situ coal pillars and accompanying phenomena. The relevant knowledge was sourced from, and for, a South African coal mining environment that remained largely unchanged in the second half of the 20th century. The depth of mining seldom exceeded 250 m, with mined seam thicknesses averaging 3 m and typical pillar width-to-height ratios (w/h) of 3–4.It is therefore not surprising that comparatively little research has been directed at the prediction of coal pillar performance in deeper deposits, where squat pillars of larger width-to-height ratios will be required to support the overlying strata. However, a thorough understanding of squat pillar performance will be necessary should the remaining deep coal deposits of the country be extracted in future, for instance in the Waterberg or Ermelo coalfields.A squat coal pillar strength formula has already been proposed in South Africa. The origin of this formula will be discussed in some detail in the following sections and its appropriateness will be critically reviewed against a great amount of evidence from relevant squat coal pillar research conducted internationally."

Jan 1, 2016

By H. Basarir

Due to the environmental constraints and the limitations on blasting, ripping as a ground loosening and breaking method has become more popular in both mining and civil engineering applications. Because of the technological advances in dozer manufacturing techniques, more powerful dozer types are available today. Thus, the ground, previously classified as non-rippable, has become rippable. As a consequence, a more applicable rippability classification system is needed which considers both equipment properties as well as rock properties in all applications. This paper is part of a complementary research work and presents the development of a previously published grading rippability classification system by the application of fuzzy set theory. The integrated rippability classification system considers the combined utilization of the rock and equipment properties, as well as expert opinion. Fuzzy set theory was chosen mainly because it deals well with uncertainty in the choice of variables. Although there are apparent sharp or discontinuous boundaries in existing classification systems, practically most of the factors involved in the ripping process are less well defined and boundaries are more blurred (or fuzzy) or uncertain in nature. Also by means of fuzzy logic it is possible to eliminate bias or subjectivity. The validity of the proposed system was checked by the comparison against existing classification systems and direct ripping production values obtained at studied sites. It is seen that by means of fuzzy logic, the uncertainties are reduced and biased usage of the final ratings that appear in alternative systems are efficiently dealt with. Keywords: Fuzzy set theory, rock rippability, rippability classification system, direct ripping, fuzzy inference system.

Jan 1, 2007

By M. Yavuz, M. Aksoy, G. Once, M. Iphar

This paper is concerned with a study on the floor heaving in the transport road of the GLI Omerler Colliery in Tuncbilek-Turkey. This gallery has been opened at the depth of 200 m through the formation of marl in 4.6 m width and 3.5 m height in cross section. Floor heaving occurred up to 70 cm in height in maximum and caused severe problems in railway and band-conveyor transportation in the main road. In addition; after the current panel mined out, the shield support units could not be transferred to the new panel because of the deformation of roadway cross-section. The I-profile steel arch supports also sank into the weak floor rock. This situation has been studied by numerical analysis using the FLAC3Dfinite difference program in order to investigate the rock mass behaviour around the opening. The obtained outputs of the numerical model have showed consistency with the amount of floor heaving in the gallery at 200 m depth. A new gallery has been driven at the depth of 115 m and M4 longwall panel has just been taken to production. So as not to encounter with the same problems at 200 m depth, especially longwall face moving problem, various numerical models have been studied in order to keep the floor heaving in the acceptable limits required to move shield support units. Keywords: Floor heave, Numerical modelling, FLAC3D, Failure criteria, RocLab

Jan 1, 2003

By N. McEwan

Keywords: refractories, chromite, Marico This paper examines the role of refractory-grade chromite in refractories. The chromite deposit at Verref?s Marico Chrome mine is described. The refractory properties of chromite and their role in basic refractories are described. The properties and metallurgical applications of chrome-containing refractories are described and finally environmental issues associated with chrome-containing refractories are discussed.

Jan 1, 2011

By L. A. Cramer

Platinum metal was first utilized by the Inca civilization in South America where it was found in alluvial deposits along the San Juan and Atrato rivers that lie between the Andean mountain range in Colombia and the Pacific Ocean. The nuggets found in these rivers average between 77% and 86%platinum, 7%?8% iron and small amounts of copper, gold and other Platinum Group Metals (PGMs). The Incas often alloyed platinum with copper to increase its workability and fabricated various ornaments from it.

Jan 1, 2001