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By S. J. Hubbard, S. D. Michaelson, A. W. Last, B. H. Ensign

Of the seventeen western states, five-Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Montana, and Nevada-produce about 90 pct of this country's primary copper. All seventeen of these states occupy 60 pct of the nation's land area but receive only 25 pct of the country's total precipitation. Seventy percent of this precipitation returns directly to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration, leaving very little for ground reservoir recharge or immediate domestic, agricultural, or industrial use. With so limited a supply available for all, competition for water rights among users is severe. The result does not always permit using the limited supply to produce the most valuable end product. Most of industry and much of agriculture can shop around for suitable operating locations. Where water is critical to their purposes, they can and do locate in areas where the needed amounts are available. Such is not the ordinary lot of the mining industry, which must locate in the area of the deposit it is planning to mine and concentrate. In the case of copper this happens to be, for the most part, right in the heart of the semi-arid regions of the West.

Jan 7, 1960

Discussion of the paper of DR. L. EDELEANU, presented at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 93, September, 1914, pp. 2313 to 2332. F. W. BUSHONG,* Pittsburgh, Pa.-This process of extraction is particularly advantageous in the case of Roumanian oil, on account of its high aromatic content. I have prepared a paper, which will appear probably next month in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, describing a series of two-degree fractions of oil from the Nowata field in Oklahoma. I have made extractions with liquid sulphur dioxide in accordance with Dr. Edeleanu's method, and found that the Oklahoma oils, for instance the kerosene fractions, are purified in this way, although the quantity taken out does not at all compare with that taken out of the Roumanian oil. I have made careful analyses of separate fractions, before and after extraction, and they show a very distinct fractional separation-. I like the distinction, brought out by Dr. Day in previous discussions, in regard to oils, rather than oil, and his beautiful illustration of fractionation. Just as fuller's earth, and other clays, will enable us to obtain lower-boiling fractional portions of the oils, and eventually retain a residuum which is hard to get rid of, or to remove, so there is an advantage to be gained by the use of a reagent which begins at the other end by taking out these last constituents first, namely, ozone. I have also analyzed the ozonides and they are derivatives of hydrocarbons very much poorer. in hydrogen than we have heretofore supposed. Similar results have been obtained with Roumanian, Russian, and Italian petroleums. Furthermore, I have prepared ozonides from a fraction of Oklahoma oils, both before and after ex-' traction with liquid sulphur dioxide, and found that the ozonide obtained from the extract is the same as that precipitated out of the original oils. In other words, the residual substance, which the fuller's earth retains, is the one first thrown down by the use of ozone, but it may also be extracted by liquid sulphur dioxide- and be thus separated in apparently unaltered condition. The analysis of this extract corresponds to the formula C15H20, which is surprising, since it is lower in hydrogen content than we have been in the habit of considering among the constituents of our oils. The extract was probably contaminated with other hydro-carbons, but I think it is unquestionable that we must look for hydro-carbons in petroleum which correspond to a formula at least -as low in hydrogen as C15H2o, and possibly even as low as C15H16.

Jan 4, 1915

By Henry S. Drinker

THE Butler Mine property is situated in the vicinity of Pittston, in the Wyoming coal-field of Pennsylvania. The coal has been worked out from the fourteen-foot or Baltimore vein for a number of years on part of the tract, the old chambers remaining open as when originally abandoned. This vein outcrops on the Butler property, and is nowhere more than sixty feet below the surface of the ground on the line of the cut-off to be described. Above the fourteen-foot vein and about, say midway, between it and the surface of the ground, there is another small vein or rider of coal, about twelve inches in thickness. The rock between the two veins is a carbonaceous slate, about twenty-five feet in thickness. Above the smaller vein is a bed of sandstone, varying in thickness, but generally not less than from eight to ten feet. This sandstone is also carbonaceous, but the proportion of carbon is much less than in the slate below. Both rocks have been analyzed, and before the next Institute meeting, the writer hopes to be able to furnish the exact proportions. The sandstone is overlaid with debris up to the surface of the ground. Some time during the spring of 1876, it was found that the coal left in the worked-out mine had been set on fire, and that the fire was gradually spreading. Inquiry developed the fact that the fire had originally been started by a woman, who had taken up her abode in an old tunnel leading into the workings. Owing to some delay in the early attempts made to extinguish the fire, it finally gained such headway that no ordinary means were found to be effectual. Finally, Mr. C. F. Conrad, civil and mining engineer, of Pittston, Penna., was called in as consulting engineer. He advised the making of a thorough cut through such portion of the old workings as had not been reached by the fire. It was found by survey that this cut could be limited to a length of about one thousand two hundred feet, as the vein faulted on both sides, and that the greatest depth of the cut would be about sixty feet. Subsequently it was decided to tunnel part of the way, thus saving the deepest portion of the cut. In 1856-7, there occurred a fire in the same mine. Two stone-walls in V-shape running from the apex of the V towards the outcrop, were built to cut the fire off, and these walls were carried as far as the vein had at that time been worked. After the walls were finished

Jan 1, 1879

By Henry S. Drinker

The Butler Mine property is situated in the vicinity of Pittston, in the Wyoming coal-field of Pennsylvania. The coal has been ' worked out from the fourteen-foot or Baltimore vein for a number of years on part of the tract, the old chambers remaining open as when originally abandoned. This vein outcrops on the Butler prop erty, and is nowhere more than sixty feet below the surface of the ground on the line of the cut-off to be described. Above the four teen-foot vein and about, say midway, between it and the surface of the ground, there is another small vein or rider of coal, about twelve inches in thickness. The rock between the two veins is a carbon aceous slate, about twenty-five feet in thickness. Above the smaller vein is a bed of sandstone, varying in thickness, but generally not less than from eight to ten feet. This sandstone is also carbonaceous, but the proportion of carbon is much less than in the slate below. Both rocks have been analyzed, and before the next Institute meet ing, the writer hopes to be able to furnish the exact proportions. The sandstone is overlaid with debris up to the surface of the ground. Some time during the spring of 1876, it was found that the coal left in the worked-out mine had been set on fire, and that the fire was gradually spreading. Inquiry developed the fact that the fire had originally been started by a woman, who had taken up her abode in an old tunnel leading into the workings. Owing to some delay in the early attempts made to extinguish the fire, it finally gained such headway that no ordinary means were found to be effectual. Finally, Mr. C. F. Conrad, civil and mining engineer, of Pittston, Penna., was called in as consulting engineer. He advised the making of a thorough cut through such portion of the old workings as had not been reached by the fire. It was found by survey that this cut could be limited to a length of about one thousand two hundred feet, as the vein faulted on both sides, and that the greatest depth of the cut would be about sixty feet. Subsequently it was decided to tunnel part of the way, thus saving the deepest portion of the cut. In 1856-7, there occurred a fire in the same mine. Two stone walls in V-shape running from the apex of the V towards the out crop, were built to cot the fire 06 and these walls were carried as far as the vein had at that time been worked. After the walls were finished

Jan 1, 1879

JOHN W. BELL (communication to the Secretary*).-I have to thank Mr. Merrill not only for his very kind remarks, but for the weight of his implied opinion that the work accomplished probably has an important practical aspect. I think there is a distinct although unuttered impression among engineers, that it will be time enough for them to begin to take an interest in the law of crushing when it emerges from the cloud of violent and even vituperative controversy that has hovered over it during the last 6 or 7 years. I have a very confident feeling that as the result of the work done by Mr. Gates, by me and by Messrs. Mitchell, Baily and Cockfield, who so loyally helped me to obtain the necessary data, at least the practical law of crushing has emerged; that it is ready and available for use by our fellow engineers, and that it will help them to unravel a number of the many practical problems they are con¬stantly confronted with. In regard to Mr. Gates' discussion, I would indeed like to believe that McGill could claim, as a minor achievement, the credit which Mr. Gates so generously bestows of having established the "law" of crushing. I think that more work would be required to establish this claim in the, strict sense of the word, as there is a fairly large gap between the coarse and fine crushing results. I am not worried about that gap, because the reason for it is quite clear to me; at the same time I-think it will be well to bridge it by a series of tests, and I am bound to admit that the testing machine is the most promising machine right at hand to work with, although whether the minute amounts of power required to crush small quantities of rock can be so accurately integrated as to insure high accuracy in the final result is still a question in my mind. If we had an Amsler-Laffon machine I would certainly try it. Mr. Gates' remarks about choke crushing are extremely interesting. He compels me to wonder, too. It is a new and probably a very important factor to be considered in this connection. I am in perfect accord with Mr. Gates about the desirability of the determination of crushing constants, because when this is accomplished the efficiencies (not relative mechanical, but real efficiencies) of different types of rock-crushing plants in any part of the world will then be comparable. For this reason it would, seem desirable that the American Institute Committee should not only consider ways and means for accom-

Jan 6, 1917

By Donald C. Branford

The place of geophysics in the curriculum of a college or an engineering school has been much discussed. There is uncertainty as to whether the graduate may be called a "geological geophysicist" or a "geophysical geologist." Some have used the term "geophysical engineer." The question of the specialized undergraduate curriculum versus a general undergraduate training in the parent sciences with the addition of cultural electives has been and is still being argued. The literature during the past Io years shows that there are two rather definite schools of thought on this subject. The prospective employer, engaged in active geophysical exploration, visualizes the graduate in terms of the routine work he will do in the field. The school administrator, grounded in many years of tradition in the cultural type of education, visualizes the graduate in terms of his position in a political and cultural society as well as in his work as a professional geophysicist. Both are right and both wrong. A third school of thought, that of the student himself, has been almost totally ignored. It would seem best, for the purpose of this paper, to treat these various points and allied material separately, and then to integrate the conclusions as a set of conditions that should be fulfilled as far as possible in the ideal curriculum. At the end the relationship of our findings to the curriculum that has been tentatively adopted at the University of Pittsburgh will be considered. Divisions in Definition or Field of Geophysics Geophysics is that field of science in which geological and earth problems are solved with the use of physical and chemical techniques. Altogether too much attention has been paid to the artificial separation in this science of the commercial applications from the so-called "pure" or academic geophysics. The only real difference in the two types of work is one of scale of operations. In the commercial field the scale is large in terms of fmancial backing, immediate economic importance, and speed of operations. In the academic field the scale is large in terms of breadth of interests, in eventual economic importance, and length of time allowable for theoretical investigations. In exploration work the scale is small in terms of dimensions, since the methods are applicable only to the outer 20,000 ft. or SO of the earth's crust. In academic work, the student is not pressed for results of immediate economic importance, and therefore can afford to spend more time on problems that seem unimportant at the time. In the sense of background knowledge of the parent sciences necessary to the geophysicist, no essential difference can be found. Physics, chemistry, geology, and mathematics together, and in their proper proportionate amounts, form the matrix from which geophysical ideas and methods may spring.

Jan 1, 1946

By William Metcalf

William Metcalf, Pittsburgh, Pa. : In rising to discuss Dr. Dadley's paper, I feel somewhat as I did at the Baltimore meeting —that a "crucible" man has no right to interfere in a "Bessenier" discussion; yet having read the paper very carefully, I feel impelled to say something, for two reasons: First, because I believe Dr. Dudley is entirely on the right and having undertaken and partly accomplished a great work, he .is entitled to the help of all who have experience in these matters; and second, because the data given force me to colicur in Captain Jones's opinion that the analyses are incomplete, since they ignore sulphur, copper, nitrogen, and possibly other injurious elements. In an experience of fourteen years, and with probably more than a hontlwl tests, we have never found the chemistry and the of crucible steel to disagree. If in any cave a disagreement tins sp- . peared, it has been our invariable custom to go over all our physirtal testa with great care, and if we found no error, then to refer the matter back to the cherubt, who has invariably found some unexjmted element to account for the trouble. It is only just to the chemist to say here, that ordinarily be is only expected to determine phosphorus, silicon, sulphnr. Generally the metals, with the exception of manganese, are not looked for, although a watch is usually kept for copper and arsenic. Further, in most cases we have found our own work more liable to be faulty than the chemist's. Having arrived then at such a degree of experience that we can preJict the analysis from our tests, or our tests from the analysis, with almost absolute certainty, I can see no reason why the same results map not be attained in the Bessemer practice. But two things are essential, neither of which we have here; first, cornplete analyses; and second, a record of the nature of the blow, the heat at which the ingots were bloomed, and the mile finished,—in short, a complete history of the This latter is quite as essential as accurate and complete analyses. Dr. Duclley ignores sulphur and copper on fair enough grounds commercially speaking, bnt when he announces so gmve a conclusion as he has reached, in a scientific way, the omission of any elementn that, may affect the conclusion is hardly justifiable. His diEerenvcs of phosphorus units, which I milst term units of rottenness 83 fr os phosphorus is concerned, and which I am sorry be did not llama wnits of alloys,—are very small, and if eulphur and copper hod been inclurlid they might havo upset hie conclusions sitogether, The

Jan 1, 1881

By Donald C. Bradford

THE place of geophysics in the curriculum of a college or an engineering school has been much discussed. There is uncertainty as to whether the graduate may be called a "geological geophysicist" or a "geophysical geologist." Some have used the term "geophysical engineer." The question of the specialized undergraduate curriculum versus a general undergraduate training in the parent sciences with the addition of cultural electives has been and is still being argued. The literature during the past 10 years shows that there are two rather definite schools of thought on this subject. The prospective employer, engaged in active geophysical exploration, visualizes the graduate in terms of the routine work he will do in the field. The school administrator, grounded in many years of tradition in the cultural type of education, visualizes the graduate in terms of his position in a political and cultural society as well as in his work as a professional geophysicist. Both are right and both wrong. A third school of thought, that of the student himself, has been almost totally ignored. It would seem best, for the purpose of this paper, to treat these various points and allied material separately, and then to integrate the conclusions as a set of conditions that should be fulfilled as far as possible in the ideal curriculum. At the end the relationship of our findings to the curriculum that has been tentatively adopted at the University of Pittsburgh will be considered. DIVISIONS IN DEFINITION OF FIELD OF GEOPHYSICS Geophysics is that field of science in which geological and earth problems are solved with the use of physical and chemical techniques. Altogether too much attention has been paid to the artificial separation in this science of the commercial applications from the so-called "pure" or academic geophysics. The only real difference in the two types of work is one of scale of operations. In the commercial field the scale is large in terms of financial backing, immediate economic importance, and speed of operations. In the academic field the scale is large in terms of breadth of interests, in eventual economic importance, and length of time allowable for theoretical investigations. In exploration work the scale is small in terms of dimensions, since the methods are applicable only to the outer 20,000 ft. or so of the earth's. crust. In academic work, the student is not pressed for results of immediate economic importance, and therefore can afford to spend more time on problems that seem unimportant at the time. In the sense of background knowledge of the parent sciences necessary to the geophysicist, no essential difference can be found. Physics, chemistry, geology, and mathematics together, and in their proper proportionate amounts, form the matrix from which geophysical ideas and methods may spring.

Jan 1, 1942

By Donald C. Branford

The place of geophysics in the curriculum of a college or an engineering school has been much discussed. There is uncertainty as to whether the graduate may be called a "geological geophysicist" or a "geophysical geologist." Some have used the term "geophysical engineer." The question of the specialized undergraduate curriculum versus a general undergraduate training in the parent sciences with the addition of cultural electives has been and is still being argued. The literature during the past Io years shows that there are two rather definite schools of thought on this subject. The prospective employer, engaged in active geophysical exploration, visualizes the graduate in terms of the routine work he will do in the field. The school administrator, grounded in many years of tradition in the cultural type of education, visualizes the graduate in terms of his position in a political and cultural society as well as in his work as a professional geophysicist. Both are right and both wrong. A third school of thought, that of the student himself, has been almost totally ignored. It would seem best, for the purpose of this paper, to treat these various points and allied material separately, and then to integrate the conclusions as a set of conditions that should be fulfilled as far as possible in the ideal curriculum. At the end the relationship of our findings to the curriculum that has been tentatively adopted at the University of Pittsburgh will be considered. Divisions in Definition or Field of Geophysics Geophysics is that field of science in which geological and earth problems are solved with the use of physical and chemical techniques. Altogether too much attention has been paid to the artificial separation in this science of the commercial applications from the so-called "pure" or academic geophysics. The only real difference in the two types of work is one of scale of operations. In the commercial field the scale is large in terms of fmancial backing, immediate economic importance, and speed of operations. In the academic field the scale is large in terms of breadth of interests, in eventual economic importance, and length of time allowable for theoretical investigations. In exploration work the scale is small in terms of dimensions, since the methods are applicable only to the outer 20,000 ft. or SO of the earth's crust. In academic work, the student is not pressed for results of immediate economic importance, and therefore can afford to spend more time on problems that seem unimportant at the time. In the sense of background knowledge of the parent sciences necessary to the geophysicist, no essential difference can be found. Physics, chemistry, geology, and mathematics together, and in their proper proportionate amounts, form the matrix from which geophysical ideas and methods may spring.

Jan 1, 1946

Our merchant marine is rapidly outgrowing our consular service, according to Edward N. Hurley, Chairman of the United States Shipping Board, who urges that steps be taken immediately to provide facilities abroad for handling the millions of tons of shipping which will be afloat under the American flag in peaceful trade when the war is over. When peace is restored and our present tonnage is scattered over world trade routes, the consular service will be inadequate to handle our ships: Besides, it will have to work against the handicaps of obsolete shipping regulations and, in many cases, lack of experience. There are nearly 100 pages in the United States consular regulations dealing with shipping platters. . Many of these regulations are based on old treaties and many of them are obsolete. There are also differences between treaties with various countries. Our consuls often lack authority to handle matters involving the interests of our sailors and shipowners. Before we can operate a modern merchant marine we must revise, standardize, and simplify this whole mass of regulations and bring them up to the efficiency of other nations' practice.

Jan 12, 1918

By W. H. Blauvelt

THat the problem of utilizing anthracite waste is worthy of the thought bestowed upon it, may be shown in few words. In the year 1889, for instance, 35,408,000 tons of coal were sent to market from the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania. According to the report of the State Geological Survey, the amount of coal thrown on the dumps as waste, varies, with circumstancett, from 44 to 60 per cent. of that shipped to market. The lower of these figures represents 16,579,000 tons of waste for that year, and it is obvious that if this, or any considerable portion of it, could have been saved, it would have constituted an important addition to the fuel-supply of the country. It is not surprising, therefore, that so much attention has been given to the utilization of this waste. Among the many lines of experiment pursued with this object in view, the conversion of the carbon of the culm into producer-gas seemg at first to promise the most satisfactory solution of the problem. It is well known that in foreign producer-plants almost all kinds of

Jan 1, 1892

By J. Wayne Erickson

One of the major problems facing today's mining industry is how to manage people and control costs in the underground mine. It is a problem with a solution. Because of the concerted effort to find and mine minerals near the surface, open-pit mine opportunities for certain minerals are becoming more limited; the mining industry will eventually be forced to produce more and more from underground mines in order to obtain those resources necessary to sustain our civilization. Although much technical progress has been made towards solving problems associated with the underground mine, such as - mine design, ventilation, rock support, equipment, and blasting techniques, little has been written on managing mining personnel. Much of what is being taught and practiced today about human relations, motivation, incentives, etc., applies to the underground miner, but the uniqueness of his group dictates a different treatment from that associated with the typical construction worker or factory employee. The difference lies with the kind of man attracted to underground mining and his working environment. Anyone who has had the responsibility of managing an underground mine would agree it is a unique problem.

Jan 9, 1976

By Larsen. Edward P.

The principle of "bed blending" in the agglomeration of materials is about 56 years old, but de- spite all education via technical papers, operating reports and results from functioning installations, the concepts of blending are still somewhat vague. Confusion exists between "mixing", "blending," and the basic role of each. The terms "blending" and mixing" are often used interchangeably, yet they describe two different processes. As properly understood and applied, a blend is a combination of different varieties of material which produces a desired quality, or the mingling of different elements to form a harmonious whole. In other words, blending is a process of combining granular materials by mechanical means, wherein the final product, or a portion thereof, must contain an exact proportional amount of every one of the several different materials which contributed to the mass and wherein all particles are so thoroughly intermingled with each other as to have lost their individual identities and become a part of the whole so that when a portion of the blend is taken at any time it will be substantially identical, chemically and physically, to any other portion taken throughout.

Jan 1, 1962

By R. S. Hendricks

During the past two years, Hecla Mining Co. has used shotcrete for ground support purposes with substantial cost savings. Hecla's experience indicates that shotcrete is an extremely effective ground support material which can be successfully employed in problem areas where various conventional systems would fail. To date, Hecla's use of shotcrete has been limited to openings where long-term high-quality support was required, to specific areas where exceptionally difficult ground conditions were encountered [ ] and, occasionally, to stope support. It is anticipated that when the necessary engineering and procurement of the components of an efficient materials handling system have been accomplished, shotcrete will be used on a routine basis in stoping and development situations. The real future of shotcrete is based, however, on the fact that this form of support offers greater opportunity for mechanization than rock bolt, timber or steel. Unlike all other support operations, which are cyclic, shotcrete is a continuous process, and therein lies its potential for incorporation into an efficient rapid excavation system. Hecla has obtained and operated both wet- and dry-process shotcrete application equipment. The operational characteristics of the two processes are presented and discussed below.

Jan 1, 1970

By R. Stanford

In any discussion of steel pouring too often refractories quality assumes a high level of importance. Unfortunately when one considers the many and varied conditions to which pouring refractories are exposed, it is difficult to isolate the true role of refractories quality alone. Some of the more important, yet often overlooked, variable conditions bearing on pouring performance are heat size, tap time and temperature, steel chemistry, ladle additions, ladle height and preheat, mechanical conditions of the pouring mechanism, hot top or non hot topped ingots and, ingot size, which determine total number of shutoffs, direct or tundish pouring, ingot filling rates, metallurgical demands, etc, etc. These considerations apply for either conventional or slide gate pouring of ingots and, to a large extent, even strand casting. In any event probably the most significant factor on pouring performance in any individual shop is what is considered an "OK" pour. We find considerable variance in this qualification, not only between Republic Steel meltshops, but throughout the industry. Therefore, it is a worthless exercise to draw comparisons attributable to refractories quality alone, except for similar conditions in a single shop.

Jan 1, 1972

By R. S. Shoemaker, R. M. Darrah

Expanded markets for copper in the past few years and a consequent search for new ore bodies have revitalized the widely known but seldom applied method of producing copper called heap leaching. Heap leaching is defined here as the process applied to oxide ores which have been mined solely for the purpose of leaching. In this case, all costs of mining the ore become a part (and a substantial one, as will be shown) of the cost of the copper produced, whereas in dump leaching the mining cost has already been accounted for as a stripping cost for the sulfide ore. Of course, with newly opened ore bodies, stripping costs may be divided through accounting procedures, between the copper produced by the mill and that obtained by leaching, but in general this type of operation must be economic on the basis of the sulfide ore alone. Heap Leaching Requires Low Capitalization Heap leaching, as a beneficiation method, is unique in that it is the only process used for the recovery of a metal in which the time involved from mining the ore to metal production is measured in months instead of hours or at the most, days. Then too, after the ore body has been depleted and mining has ceased, metal production will continue for some substantial period of time. Heap leaching is also unique because unlike any other method of beneficiation, metal recovery cannot be accurately forecast ahead of time and recovery will never approach that of a conventionally milled sulfide ore or even that of a vat leached oxide ore. Counter-balancing this drawback, however, is the relatively low capital expenditure necessary to put a heap leaching operation into production and the consequence that smaller ore bodies which would not support the higher capital cost involved in a vat leaching plant can be made into producers. Stated more simply, in heap leaching the operator accepts low recovery in exchange for low capital costs and low break even point. Whether the operator chooses vat leaching with its higher recovery and higher capital costs, is a mater of economics which depends in part on the nature of the ore to decide. For instance, an ore that will vat leach in 7 to 10 days using 7 pounds of sulfuric acid per pound of copper produced might use double or triple that amount of acid during the months that are required for heap leaching.

Jan 12, 1968

The Library belonging to the Institute is now administered as part of that of the United Engineering Society, the members of the Library Committee representing the Institute on the Library Board of the United Engineering Society. The main collection now consists of 115,900 books, 3680 pamphlets, 5811 maps, and 4402 searches, making a total of 129,793, a net gain of 7701 within the year. There is in addition a lending collection of 1004 volumes and one of duplicates amounting to 11,310. The library grows steadily both by gift and purchase. The cataloging is now substantially current covering 124,100 items represented by 362,145 cards. There are many rare and notable books, especially those relating to early engineering. It is truly a great treasure house of knowledge. While no severe effort is made to record all visitors the books showed 23,470 to have used the Library in 1928. In addition 5102 telephone requests for information were answered, 202 searches and 196 translations made and 34,964 photo prints furnished. The service department is maintained by small fees which cover the cost. The total amount appropriated for operating expense for the year was $46,300, of which $8,240.02 was furnished by the Institute, $5,399.45 being derived as income from the Douglas Library Fund and the remainder from current receipts. Within the year a slight change was made in the method of meeting the expenses of the Library, a flat charge of $5,000 per year being made against each of the four Founder Societies and this being supplemented by a surcharge based upon membership. The effect of this has been for the present to decrease slightly the amount that the Institute would otherwise need to pay. Placing in one collection all the books of the four societies greatly increases the number of books accessible to the members of each and opening the Library to the public is an important factor in keeping the tax exemption privilege enjoyed for the building. The Director and Staff of the Library make every effort not only to accommodate those who come in person to consult the collection but members resident elsewhere who communicate by letter or wire. The facilities of the Library are truly available to all.

Jan 1, 1929

By W. M. Small

Austria.—Austria produced some 430 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each of crude oil of a 0.9428 sp. gr. during 1934. Gosting II well near Zis-tersdorf was placed on the pump in August and at the end of the year was still producing about three cisterns daily. This well is owned by the Erdöl-Produktionsgesellschaft while Gösting I is owned by Raky-Danubia. Only five wells were completed in the republic during the year. These accounted for 1783.5 meters of the 2225 meters drilled. The only producer completed was Gosting 11. At the close of the year, four rigs were in operation and one rigging up. At least 8 or 10 new wells are planned in Lower Austria for 1935. The European Gas & Electric Co. put its 6-km. gas line into operation in May and has sold 12,301,550 cu. m. of gas to the Vienna City Electric Works. A 2-km. pipe line was built from Gösting II to the railway loading rack near Zistersdorf. Hungary.—No oil or gas was produced except a small amount of gas trapped from flowing artesian wells. The Government completed and abandoned a 1500-m. hole at Tisztaberek in northeastern Hungary and is drilling at 967 m. near Bogáes, 120 km. northeast of Budapest. It is unofficially reported it plans to drill two new wells in 1935. The European Gas & Electric Co. has a rig up for a test at Mihalyi in Transdanubia. Czechoslovakia.—In Gbely (Egbell) there were produced 1283 cisterns of 10,000 kg. of 0.935 sp. gr. oil and a small amount of gas used for fuel. This field is operated by the Government; 17 shallow producing wells and three dry holes were drilled, with a total of 3351 m. of hole completed. In Hodonin (Goding) there were produced approximately 1300 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each of 0.91 sp. gr. oil and a small amount of gas used for fuel. The field is operated by the Apollo, which drilled four producing wells averaging 460 m. in depth, one small gas well of 550 m., one small gas well 260, and one dry hole 230 m. Two wells were deepened a total of 80 meters. The Government is drilling below 800 m. in a wildcat test in eastern Czechoslovakia near the Rumanian frontier.

Jan 1, 1935

By Richard Moldenke

The author discusses some economic conditions which have made the career of the cast-iron pipe industry in the United States a checkered one. He next describes the two new developements in the manufacture of cast-iron pipe-both along the lines of centrifugal casting. The advantages and disadvantages of both processes are presented in some detail. Finally, statistics on the production of pipe in the United States at the present time are given, as well as the plants-and their capacities-so far as these are situated in the South. No SINGLE branch of the foundry industry has been brought to a production basis of huge tonnage, low manufacturing cost, and producing material of a remarkably high quality, as has the making of cast-iron pipe. The pipe shop is an excellent illustration of the fact that repetition work in specialties leads to mechanical equipment and manipulation that lower production costs to an. astonishing degree. Hence cast-iron pipe, in dull times, has been sold at a few dollars a ton over the selling price of the pig iron used. On the other hand, these same pipe, shops make fittings .of many varieties, and in much smaller quantities, where the cost is high, and when pipe may be sold, say, at $50 a ton, the fittings on the same shipment will be sold for nearly double that price. The history of pipe-making, in the United States, is a checkered one the mortality of plants is high and, from the nature of the industry, plants must be large to live. In spite of the fact that the best processes must be used to turn out this rather strict specification material, pipe is easy to make and a pipe plant is more of a tonnage mill than the really high-class specialty foundry it should be. Every time, therefore, that the demand for pipe is strong new shops spring up, only to close when the demand has ceased, but the financial damage to the more permanent plants has been done. Both the South and the North have had abundant experiences of this kind, and when recently a northern Public Service Corporation gave its order to France, the pipe plants thus adversely affected were content to have this occur rather than see-a plant started to supply the surplus demand.

Jan 9, 1924

By H. C. George

Since 1911, when J. L. Dunn first used compressed air for repressuring depleted oil sands in southeast Ohio, the rejuvenation of many depleted oil fields has been directly due to repressuring by means of air or gas. Developments in repressuring in recent years have resulted in its successful use in the early life of some deep, high-pressure oil fields, conserving the natural gas dissolved in and associated with the oil by returning it to the producing oil sand after it has been compressed above the existing rock pressure of the reservoir. One of the most successful operations of this type is that of the Humble Oil & Refining Co., on the DeWalt salt dome at Sugarland, Texas. I quote from a personal communication with reference to this field: "Structurally, the field is dome-shaped, having a closure of approximately 350 ft. Production comes from a sandy shale interbedded with a clean sand and lying over a cap rock which is about 3400 ft. deep on top of the structure." A feature of the operation of this field is the production of the required amount of oil with the minimum of gas production. Wells on top of the dome have high gas-oil ratios, while those down structure have lower ratios, depending upon the distance of the well from the peak. To date, it has been possible to produce the oil needed from the wells circling the dome above the water zone and below the gas zone, and in this manner the average gas-oil ratio has been kept low. The gas from all separators is turned into a gas system which serves the entire field. From this system, all drilling rigs and utilities requiring gas for a fuel draw their requirements, and the remainder of the gas (about two-thirds of the production) is delivered to a compressor plant which boosts the pressure until it can be returned to the sand at the top of the dome where the rock pressure is 1400 lb, per square inch. "The Sugarland wells produce through 2-in. tubing with a 3/8-in. choke in one wing of the well-head manifold. The pressure builds up as high as 1300 lb, per square inch on the casing while on the tubing it varies from 0 to 900 lb. per square inch, depending upon the amount of gas produced with the oil."

Jan 1, 1931