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By P. W. Bridgman

It is characteristic of most scientific investigators that they are not satisfied with the discovery of new facts, no matter how curious or unexpected, but that along with the factual discovery there is a constant effort to understand. It appears that one's interest in, and satisfaction with, the discovery of an array of new experimental facts is enormously increased if one has at the same time a theory or hypothesis guiding one's expectation of what sort of new experimental discovery may lie around the corner. Conversely, as a theoretical physicist one's satisfaction with his theory is greatly enhanced if along with the development of the theory can go the discovery of new experimental facts, confirming or perhaps modifying the theory as it grows. Of course, there have been long arid stretches in the history of physics in which new data of unquestioned ultimate importance have piled up, without much inspiration or illumination in the way of understanding. For 50 years spectroscopy had such an arid history, but how irksome this was felt to be is plainly shown by the almost audible relief that greeted the first success by Bohr in injecting understanding into the situation, and by the fresh rush of experimenters into this field when the prospect of understanding had once been offered. The investigations in the field of high pressure, which have occupied me for a long time,' until the last few years have been in very much the same sort of situation as spectroscopy before the advent of Bohr. A great many kinds of data were collected for a great many solid and liquid substances, and there could be no question of the importance of these data, because the uniform change of dimensions produced by hydrostatic pressure is perhaps the simplest conceivable type of alteration to which a body can be subjected. But except for a few isolated flashes, there was no theoretical illumination, so that it had to be to a large extent the enthusiasm of the collector that kept me going. However, within the last few years the wave-mechanics theory of solids has progressed so rapidly that

Jan 1, 1938

By J. W. Harden

AT our meeting in October last we saw in operation at Pittsburgh, the comparatively modern process of the utilization of small coal by washing, by an arrangement similar to that of Berard or Morrison. The small coal washed was that of an old pile, the refuse of the mining of the Pittsburgh bed, and which had long lain uncared for. Value was thereby restored to it when it was converted into a very good coke. This circumstance led to comments on the mountains of broken coal lying wasted, and in its present condition worse than useless, in the neighborhood of the mines of the Wyoming Valley, though they are not confined to that district. Some things were said condemning the course which produced it, some were left unsaid. Of a system that destroys one-half the coal-bed in producing the other half there can, however, be but one opinion. Schemes have been suggested for the utilization of present accumulations which, if successfully applied, would in so Far be beneficial. More than ordinary attention is now being given to the same subject in England ; a Mr. Barker has invented a means by which he amalgamates the "dust," too fine to burn in ordinary grates, with a composition he calls "diamond cement," producing blocks of coal said to resist water, both hot and cold, and which a smart blow will only break to pieces, not cause to crumble. But any scheme less than the one which will prevent the wasting of coal, which still goes on, though that involves the aban- donment of the breaker, will only be one of expediency; and the latter can only be done by the aid of the consumer. But the wasting of coal is not alone with the breaker; much is made in the mine. The cause is not far to seek ; the remedy is with capitalist and owner. Owners and consumers then are alike interested, and they have it in their power, in the one case, to mitigate, in the other, almost entirely to remove the cause of the evil. Of consumers there is one in every

By Emil Gathmann

STEEL as it is poured, or teemed, into the mold for forming the ingot may be broadly separated into two divisions; i.e., effervescing or gassy steel, also termed evolution steel, and non-effervescing or killed steel, also termed solution steel. Between these primary divisions there are various types having the characteristics of both divisions but really not belonging to either; such steels are termed semi-piping, rising, or wild, as the type may be. True unkilled, or effervescing, steel should contain large volumes of gases, which are evolved while the metal is being teemed, or cast from the ladle nozzle into the mold, and while the temperature of the steel is being reduced prior to the solidification or freezing of the steel, the upper portion, or top, of the ingot remaining liquid due to the evolution of gases until an ingot skin of considerable thickness has been formed. These gases consist principally of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and ammonia. It is generally understood that nitrogen gases are the first evolved and form the skin blowholes, at times troublesome, in the forming solidifying ingot. Ingots made of effervescing steel will always contain a large number of blowholes. Such blowholes are not deemed objectionable in various products if they occur well within the interior of the ingot where they will not be subject to oxidation upon the ingot's cooling and subsequent re-heating and rolling or forging. Very little top or bottom discard is taken from this type of ingot as pipes, or large shrinkage cavities, at the upper portion of the ingot do not usually occur, the difference in volume between the liquid and the solid steel (6 to 10 per cent.) being compensated for by the innumerable blowholes distributed throughout the body of the , ingot. Of the 40,000,000 tons of steel made in the United States during the year 1919, at least 35,000,000 tons of ingots were made of gassy or semi-gassy steel. Killed, or solution, steel is termed true piping steel from the characteristic pipe or shrinkage cavity that usually occurs in the uppermost central portion of the ingot.

Jan 8, 1920

By Leonard Logan

The petroleum industry is not peculiar in that it has a problem of stabilization. Economic conditions, not only in the United States but throughout the entire world, are unstable. However, the petroleum industry together with coal mining and agriculture has experienced a longer period of depression than most of the others. It is significant to note that industries engaged in the production of basic raw materials, the primary industries, have not enjoyed as much prosperity since the war as the secondary industries, or those engaged in the fabricating of raw materials and their distribution. The problems of the primary industries are not all the same. Overproduction has existed for several years in agriculture but its causes are not the same as those that have brought about overproduction in the petroleum industry. Unlike agriculture, the institution of property rights and the migratory nature of oil are responsible for the oil man's troubles. Our laws permit the owner of the oil and gas rights, with certain exceptions, to drill when and where he pleases. Since oil is migratory, the adjacent property owner must go and do likewise—drill. This condition spread over a wide area soon brings to the surface more petroleum than can be readily absorbed by the market, creating a condition of overproduction. It is significant to note at this place that when overproduction occurs the complete units in the industry suffer least. A complete unit is taken here to mean a corporation engaged in all the phases of the industry through production, transportation, refining and marketing. In the present depression the complete units in the industry are not in as bad financial condition as those engaged in single phases of the industry. The same thing can be said of the zinc industry, the lumber industry, and the other industries where there are organizations engaged in all the steps through the production of raw materials to the marketing of the finished product. The reason for this is that the complete units are in better position to coordinate all the factors that would work for a stabilized condition than are the units that are engaged in a single branch of the industry.

Jan 1, 1931

By G. Lavagnino

The old Telegraph mine lies on both sides of Bear gulch, a short branch of Upper Bingham canon, and nearly in the center of the group of mines called the Bingham Mines, about twenty-seven miles southwest of Salt Lake City. It is considered, by local miners as the most important mine of the district. The geological formation consists of Weber quartzites, with subordinate conformable limestones and shales, alternating with porphyritic rocks. These widen towards and connect with the massive backbone of the Oquirrh mountains, while the quartzite develops itself on the slope broken through by Bingham canon. The porphyry not only runs between the strata, but also cuts across them, isolating large portions near the mountain mass, and again on a smaller scale it penetrates some joints in the quartzite. It is a crystalline felspathic rock, containing variable proportions of quartz, mica, hornblende, chlorite, and iron pyrites as accessories. In places, it takes a less distinct or almost uniform fine-grained structure. It has a gray or greenish, and, when much altered, also a reddish or even white color. The quartzite is a fine-grained or almost compact grayish-white or bluish or reddish quartz-rock, containing in places fine scales of mica and grains of iron pyrites as accessories. The raised, folded, or broken masses show well-defined bedding-joints, and their general dip is 35 to 50 degrees towards north or northwest. In the porphyry occur metalliferous veins with a prevailing N.E.S.W. strike. These are in general narrow veins; their principal contents are not dissimilar from those of the other deposits; but there is considerably less oxidation near the surface and the ore is mostly richer in silver and gold. In the quartzite the ore-deposits generally occur on the joints of bedding. The more important deposits occur either in clearlydefined contact-veins or, more often, in somewhat vaguely-defined mineralized zones, that could be called contact-zones. These comprise several masses of more or less altered or decomposed rocks and the newly-distributed products of their mechanical and chemical decomposition, such as breccia and clay in seams or in more irregular bodies..

Jan 1, 1888

By James E. Lawver

Efficiency of industrial research and development depends on the ability of engineers and scientists to collect and present data to top management for decisions. In many cases, the data presented are so deceptive that management makes costly wrong decisions. Since management personnel often are selected on the basis of higher administrative quality than technical ability, it is the responsibility of the industrial scientist or research engineer to make certain that the data presented tell a completely ac- curate story of each industrial problem. It is rare that misleading data are deliberately presented, but when this is done, it is? of course, dishonest. The rise of deceptive data usually stems from the lack of knowledge of experimental design and statistical methods of analysis. Most of the better chemical engineering schools have recognized the need for courses in industrial experimentation and many of them offer complete courses at both graduate and un- dergrarluate levels. By contrast, many of the mining and metallurgical schools have not recognized the importance of industrial experimentation courses and some of them, in fact, do not allow credit toward a mining or metallurgical engineering degree for statistical courses even when taken as an elective. The sole purpose of this paper is to make a plea for mining and metallurgical schools to present required industrial. statistical courses for their graduates. It is true that fine industrial research has been accomplished in the past without the assistance of any statistical techniques. Industrial problems have also been solved without the use of digital or analog computers, electron microscopes or other modern conveniences. The fact remains, however, that the correct use of these modern tools tends to reduce the cost of research and to eliminate costly errors. A working knowledge of experimental design and statistical data analysis must simply be viewed as a valuable tool whose proper use will greatly reduce the cost of experimentation and minimize the cost of false conclusions. These statistical methods, however, simply cannot replace fundamental knowledge or, for that matter, "good horse sense". Nevertheless. an experimenter armed with fundamental knowledge and good horse sense but completely ignorant of elementary statistical techniques, may easily present his data in such a deceptive form to cause management to make incorrect decisions.

Jan 6, 1962

By John W. Langley

The papers of Mr. W. J. Keep, read before this Institute, have called attention to the influence of aluminum in cast-iron and on iron and steel castings. The information in these papers is interesting and valuable, as showing the modifications which iron undergoes when dosed with sufficient aluminum to form a distinct alloy, the quantity of the alloying metal used being such that the amount remaining in the casting is sufficient to be readily discovered by analysis. The same is also true of the so-called aluminum-steel patented by R. A. Hadfield, where the proportions specified are such as to leave in the finished steel from one-twentieth to one-tenth of one per cent. of aluminum. Whether these alloys are of practical utility or not has thus far . not been proved by any extended tests on a large scale, and until such evidence is forthcoming it may be safely held, provisionally, that such a use of aluminum is of doubtful utility. But there is another function which this metal can perform that has been known for some time, and which has passed beyond the experimental stage, viz.: its beneficial effect in securing sound ingots. It appears to be a general property of all metals when in the fluid state and at a temperature considerably above their points of fusion, to contain gas, either dissolved from the air or frorn the furnace, or else self-evolved by internal reactions. Silver, perhaps, shows this power in the highest degree, and mercury and lead in the least; midway stands steel—the quantity of gas which it can hold in solution, or " occlusion " as it has been called, varies with its temperature, its composition, and its mode of manufacture. When the steel sets in the mould, a portion of this gas escapes, causing blow-holes, surface defects, boiling-over, wildness, and quite a long train of troubles, familiar to all practical steel-makers. Ferro-silicon has long been used as a quieting agent. The first extended use of it for this purpose was made at Terre-Noire, in

Jan 1, 1892

By George Stone

THE method of making oxide of zinc direct from the ore was invented and developed at the works of The New Jersey Zinc Co. at Newark in the middle of the last century. The process was invented by Burrows, who had not the ability, financial or technical, to work out the details necessary to make it of commercial value. This was done by Col. Wetherill, whose name is commonly attached to this process. The, grate bars used are also frequently called Wetherill grates, which is a misnomer because they were in common use for boiler firing at the time and he never claimed their invention. The invention of the process was due to the efforts of The New Jersey Zinc Co. to find a profitable means of working the ores from Franklin and Sterling Hill, N. J. These are a mixture of franklinite, willemite and zincite, containing about 20 per cent. of zinc. The first attempts were to make spelter, which were not successful, owing to the low grade of the ore and the fusibility of the residue. Failing in this, the next attempt was to make oxide in large muffles and reverberatory furnaces. This succeeded, although the cost of operation was high, the recovery low, and the quality of the product uncertain. In 1855, the new process was patented and has been in successful operation ever since. Essentially, the process is to spread a mixture of coal and ore on a body of burning coal on a perforated grate and blow an excess of air through the grate. The zinc is reduced in contact with the coal, volatilizes and burned by the excess of air in the upper part off the furnace and in the flues. It is then carried to the hag rooms by the excess air and products of combustion which are forced through the flues by fans. In its main features, the process is the same today as at the time of its invention, but the details have been so modified that it would hardly be recognized by its originators.

Jan 9, 1917

By N. T. Burdine

Formulas for calculating relative permeability from pore size distribution data are derived from basic laws of fluid flow ill porous media. The tortuosity factors that appear in the equation5 are described in. terms of the physical properties of tile medium and the saturations of the contained fluids. Procedures for calculating and methods for measuring the tortuosity factors are discussed. Values of relative permeability calculated by the formulas art: compared with results obtained by experimental measurements I INTRODUCTION Recently, several investigators have derived relative permeability equations from Darey's and Poisenille's Laws in which some, physical factor or factors describing the porous system appear. The factor that has caused the greatest amount of comment, and which is probably least understood, is the tortuosity of the fluid {lath ill the porous sample. Values of the tortuosity factors appearing in the equations range from a constant for all condition- of the fluid flow system to an inverse function of the pore radii. It is the purpose of this paper to compare wine experi~i~cntslly determined relative permeability curves with those calculated by a method which utilized capillary pressure infortmation. The capillary pressure data were obtained prefer.. ably from pore size distribution information as determined by mercury injection but. in some cases, in the absence of suitable mercury injection information. data were taken from measurements made by the porous semi-permeable diaphragm method. The physical significance of certain tortuosity concepts is inferred and the determinations of the tortuosity factors from pore size distribution data and by electrical measurements are discussed. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND In previously reported studies on pore size distribution in petroleum reservoir rocks. by the author and co-workers ail equation was derived relating specific permeability. k, to pore entry radii, R, porosity. . tortuosity factor. .,, and incremental pore volume. V. The equation is where being the "effective" length of the flow path in the porous sample. and L the length of the porous sample., The constant. 0.126. is a units conversion factor. (This definition of tortuosity factor X, = L L does not conform to all such definitions found in the literature. Fly similarity, in a two-phase system. the effective permeability of the wetting-phase.

Jan 1, 1953

By Lester C. Uren

Today, a dozen or more universities and colleges in the United States are offering curricula designed for the specialized training of engineering students who plan to enter the petroleum industry. Many hundreds of students are following these curricula in their academic preparation, with the expectation that by so doing they will be better equipped to enter the petroleum industry in an engineering capacity than their competitors that seek to do likewise with training of less specialized character. Those who have helped plan and develop these curricula believe that such specialization should and does afford the student a superior preparation for his task. Others have questioned this and urge a broad preparation in fundamentals without specialization. Still others are suggesting even greater specialization than present petroleum engineering curricula afford. Some would have the student first prepare himself in one of the more general divisions of engineering, such as civil, mechanical or electrical engineering, and then seek some degree of specialized preparation in a graduate program. Which of these views is correct; or, if there is merit in each, which plan offers the greater advantage to the student? It is time that we paused to take stock of our objectives and of our way of attaining them. Is the training received by our petroleum engineering students what it should be? To what extent is the product of our petroleum engineering schools meeting the requirements of the industry? How may graduates be better equipped for the work they are called upon to do? These are questions that educators interested in the training of petroleum engineering students are ever asking. They must depend upon engineers and executives engaged directly in the industry for advice and helpful suggestions in better planning the training to be offered to our future engineers. This paper will have served its purpose if it is successful in focusing attention of men active in the industry on some of these educational problems, to the end that the ideas of men close to the needs of the industry may be made known to those who have responsibility in the control of our educational programs.

Jan 1, 1937

By F. L. Wolf, A. A. Grubb

There is a tendency on the part of practical foundrymen to accept with reluctance the results of tests on sands, binders, and such materials made in the chemical laboratory alone. They feel that such tests frequently emphasize and measure properties that are of minor importance and fail to take account of characteristics that are important in determining the value of the material in actual practice. Experience seems to indicate that the most thorough and conclusive test for any new foundry material is an actual run in the foundry alongside of a standard material of known value. Such a test, however, involves certain difficulties and necessitates certain precautions. It is not always easy to obtain a fail trial for a new material. We all have certain prejuclices, which unconsciously affect our judgment to a marked degree. A practical test frequently involves so many workmen, each of whom reacts in a different manner to the test, that the personal equation becomes very complex and the true results of the test are obscured. There are times, too, when a thorough experimental trial of a material would interfere too much with the. rush of work in a department or would hazard the quality of the product to such an extent as to make it inadvisable. Under such conditions a laboratory test is advisable before the material is sent into the foundry. These tests should be made as practical as possible and so closely related to foundry practice as to give a true index to the value of a product for the purpose desired. Core sands and molding sands are as numerous "as the sands of the sea" and valy as much in quality. Old sources of supply are continually failing and new ones must be opened, so that we must continually search for new and better grades of sand. During the past year, the Ohio Brass Co. has developed tests for sands, cores, and binders which bear a close relation to the particular use to which these materials are put in the foundry and which arc fairly indicative of their value. While the tests thus far have been confined to cores and core sands, it is expected that tests for molding sand will bc developed in the future.

Jan 1, 1921

By T. S. Spicer, C. C. Wright, R. G. Bowman

IN recent years considerable publicity has been given to the problem of atmospheric pollution by fuel-burning equipment. Legislation has been stimulated and smoke ordinances have been enacted, the provisions of which show a definite trend toward stricter control of the emissions not only from the stacks of industrial fuel users but also from the chimneys of domestic consumers. As a result of war conditions, some slackening in the enforcement of these ordinances may be noted, but this is only a temporary expediency caused by the changes necessary in the distribution of the nation's fuel supplies and difficulties in securing the necessary equipment. Previous trends may be expected to continue in the postwar period. Largely because of the consumer demand for automatic heat, but partly because of the legislation against smoke emission, there has been a marked increase in the use of domestic underfeed stokers with the past decade. When correctly adjusted and operated, these units reduce the smoke emission materially, so that even the high-volatile bituminous coals may be burned with little or no emission of objectionable smoke. Unfortunately, however, the use of the domestic underfeed stoker introduces another problem; namely, fly-ash. PRODUCTION OF FLY-ASH The term "fly-ash" is a misnomer, since the fly material is generally a mixture of small carbonaceous particles varying from green coal to coke, and inorganic particles ranging from fluffy ash to small particles of fused clinker. For want of a more comprehensive name, however, the term fly-ash is used throughout this paper to include all the fly material. Even with hand-fired furnaces a certain amount of fly-ash is produced, which necessitates periodic cleaning of the boiler flues or furnace radiator, the smoke pipe, and occasionally the chimney itself. With stoker operations the amount of fly-ash is increased many fold, because of the higher velocity of air travel through the fuel bed. Frequently the amount of this fly-ash attains such proportions as to constitute a definite nuisance to the householder and his neighbors and distracts very materially from the otherwise automatic or semi-automatic performance of the stoker. Virtually all the boilers and hot-air furnaces marketed in the domestic field

Jan 1, 1944

By Edmund B. Kirby

This meeting marks the point at which the long-standing dissatisfaction with the mineral-land laws, the innumerable protests against them, and the many isolated efforts to obtain relief, have developed into a general movement for their revision. That part of the mining industry which is affected by these laws has three general organizations which are able to speak for it: the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Mining and Metallurgical Society of . America, and the American Mining Congress; all of which are represented in this meeting. In the series of able and thoughtful papers presented here, prominent men have discussed the evils of the present laws and some of the reforms which should be made in them. We all appreciate fully the ultimate value of these studies; but we are also painfully aware of the fact that discussion of this kind has been going on for a quarter of a century without any other effect than a steady increase in the mass of printed records stored on library shelves. In order to get any practical result we Gust induce an indifferent government at Washington to act, and to do this we must unite in pushing some practical plan whereby it may act in a simple and effective way and with the least possible amount of criticism or opposition. The actual question before us is not whether the mining laws are bad; for their evils and absurdities are not only beyond discussion but also beyond the resources of a temperate and dignified vocabulary. It is not what particular changes ought to be made; for it is premature to make . specific recommendations until there is some one to listen to them. Moreover, we all know that there are wisdom and experience enough available, and awaiting that time, for the creation of a code which would be a model to the mining world. The practical question now is, how to obtain the revision; and since the American Mining Congress has of late restricted its attention to this phase of the problem I wish as one of its representatives here to present its views upon the matter.

Jan 1, 1915

By James M. Hodge

The Cumberland Gap extension of the Louisville and Nashville railroad, recently completed from Cumberland Gap to Norton, 71 miles, connects at the latter point with the Norfolk and Western, making a direct through line from Louisville to Norfolk. The whole of this connecting link skirts the southern boundary of the southwest Virginia coal region, but for the first 57 miles of its course it is separated from the coal by a mountain range (Cumberland mountain and its extension, Stone mountain), which bars entrance to the field from that direction, excepting at Pennington Gap, where access may he had to a small area only, which has not yet developed any very satisfactory coal. The railroad passes through the range at Big Stone Gap, and for the last 14 miles of its course to Norton is in direct contact with that part of the coal region known as the Big Stone Gap coal-field. By this road a western and southwestern outlet from the field is secured; the Clinch valley extension of the Norfolk and Western railroad gives exit eastward from Norton, and the South Atlantic and Ohio railroad, built through Big Stone Gap simultaneously with the L. & N. R. R., delivers the coal to points south and southeast. Besides these lines already built, an early connection with the East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia railroad, via its Rogersville branch, is probable, and connections with the railroads of eastern Kentucky are projected. The Charleston, Cincinnati and Chicago railroad has already done some grading on one of the latter, but the rugged country intervening will prevent its construction till the demand for it becomes urgent. The coal-field embraces in Virginia about 120 square miles, to which should be added some 30 square miles in Kentucky, also tributary to Big Stone Gap, the whole of it underlaid by coal, probably of workable thickness, and much of it by two or more such beds. The determination of the boundaries of the field, however (except on the south, where Stone mountain forms a natural limit beyond which only a small, isolated tract of coal is found), is involved in much

Jan 1, 1893

By S. D. Dahlgren

The plasticity of unalloyed P plutonium was studied by evaluating the strain-rate-hardening exponent, m, in the equation Values of m up to 0.33 and tensile elongations up to 680 pct were obtained for ß plutonium formed directly from the a phase. Casl bars that were cycled and tested had lower flow stresses and higher values for than uncycled bars , hut their total plastic elongations were not as great as expected because of premature failure at voids formed during cycling. Flow stresses were higher and m was lower (m = 0.15) for 9 plutonzutn formed from the y phase. ThE strain-rate-hardening exponent for plastic flow of p plutonium was determined as a function of strain rate, test temperature, and heat-treating history, and it was related to the rather large plastic elongation found previously for some plutonium tensile samples. Gardner and ~ann' obtained tensile elongations of up to 620 pct for P plutonium samples which had been completely transformed from the low-temperature a phase to the P phase before testing. Such a large percentage elongation is unusual for unalloyed metals or single-phase alloys.' The a phase is stable below approximately 112°C and (3 is stable between approximately 112" and 190"c.~ Both phases have mono-clinic structures. A temperature of 160°C is 0.58 of the effective absolute melting point, 475°C) of the p phase. The effective melting point is obtained by considering the enthalpy and entropy changes associated with the higher-temperature phase transformations and it is not the same as the experimental melting point of the highest-temperature allotrope of unalloyed plutonium. Nelson, Bowman, and Bierlein observed a striking difference between the ductility, as well as other mechanical properties, of p plutonium formed from the next higher-temperature phase (y) and the ductility of /3 plutonium formed from the a phase. The total elongation of /3 plutonium formed from the y phase was less than 5 pct. Earlier, the creep rate of 13 plutonium formed from the a phase was shown to be 200 to 500 times faster than the rate for 0 formed from y for the same test temperature and stress.

Jan 1, 1969

By Edmund Kirby

This meeting marks the point at which the long-standing dissatisfaction with the mineral-land laves, the innumerable protests against them, and the many isolated efforts to obtain relief, have developed into a general movement for the: revision. That part of the mining industry which is affected by these laws has three general organizations to speak for it: the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, and the American "A Mining Congress: all of which are represented in this meeting. In the series of able and thoughtful presented here, prominent men have discussed the evils of the present laws aid some of the reforms which should be made in them. We all appreciate fully the ultimate value of these studies; but we are also painfully aware of the fact that discussion of this kind has been going on for a quarter of a century without any other effect than a steady increase in the mass of printed records stored on library shelves. In order to get any practical result we must induce an indifferent government at Washington to act, and to do this we must unite in pushing some practical plan whereby it may act in a simple and effective way and with the least possible amount of criticism or opposition. The actual question before us is not whether the mining laws are bad; for their evils and absurdities are not only beyond discussion but also beyond the resources of a temperate and dignified vocabulary. It is not what particular changes ought to be made; for it is premature to make specific recommendations until there is some one to listen to them. Moreover, we all know that there are wisdom and experience enough available, and awaiting that time, for the creation of a code which would be a model to the mining world. The practical question now is, how to obtain the revision; and since the American Mining Congress has of late restricted its attention to this phase of the problem I wish as one of its representatives here to present its views upon the matter.

Jan 6, 1914

By R. Philip Hammond

MONAZITE has had a Cinderella-like history. Although nearly go per cent pure rare-earth compound (rare-earth phosphate) it was sought at first not for the rare earths but for the sake of a minor constituent-thorium. The thorium, essential for the Welsbach gaslight mantle, was present in only small quantities and the principal constituents, the rare earths, were largely discarded. Gradually, however, the rare earths have developed uses of their own and today have left the thorium far behind in value. OCCURRENCE Monazite was first produced commercially about 1886, in North Carolina, where it was collected in small sluices by farmers who found it in stream beds on their land. The deposits were later exploited on a larger scale, but were mostly abandoned in a few years, when monazite from Brazil came upon the market in far larger quantities. Domestic production ceased entirely in 1906. The Brazilian source is still active, together with Indian, Dutch East Indies, and Australian deposits. Several other localities in the United States have yielded monazite, but none of these has produced commercially as yet. Monazite occurs originally in pegmatites and gneisses, through which, unfortunately, it is scattered in highly dispersed form. All commercially useful deposits consist of transported monazite sands liberated by erosion and concentrated by the action of water, which has sluiced away lighter materials and concentrated the heavy (D = 5.0 to 5.2) grains of monazite, together with ilmenite, zircon, garnet, and other dense minerals. The Carolina deposits were in stream beds; most of the other deposits mentioned are on or near the seashore, where the action of the waves has served to concentrate the monazite. In most cases today, the sands are worked to obtain the ilmenite and zircon, as well as monazite. The minerals are separated by means of sluices, dry tables, and magnetic separators, and each is finally obtained nearly pure. No crushing or grinding is necessary. The concentrates are shipped in fiber bags. COMPOSITION OF MONAZITE As Table I illustrates, monazite is the anhydrous orthophosphate of the cerium [ ] group of rare-earth elements. A small amount of yttrium and terbium group phosphate is also present.* All the rare-

Jan 1, 1946

W. C. MATTESON (communication to the Secretary*).-The criticism and question raised by Arthur Knapp regarding the standardization of nomenclature is most important. Faulty rock classification-is generally the result of carelessness or ignorance on the part of the driller. Two remedies might be suggested. In a field where several large companies are operating on an extensive scale, a geologist from each concern might be assigned to superintend the gathering of well-log data and the classification of samples. The geologists from the several operating companies might then combine their data, which would doubtless give valuable information to all interested parties. At present, coordination is not a big factor, unfortunately, but the time will come when conservation will demand such systematic coordination on the part of competing companies. The second remedy lies in instructing and educating the driller to a thorough understanding of the importance of an accurate log and correct classification of the various formations. The writer does not agree with the statement that "90 per cent. of the logs as taken today are absolutely worthless to any one but the one who has taken the log." While mistakes in nomenclature often occur, the driller is generally able to classify the important water-, oil-, and gas-bearing formations with a fair degree of accuracy. Such information is often sufficient to permit accurate correlation and also constitutes valuable data for projection purposes. It must be borne in mind that to attempt to use well-log data in a strict scientific sense of accuracy is impracticable and impossible. A broad interpretation and a comprehensive knowledge of the practical limits of such' information are essential in applying it successfully. Even experienced geologists do not always agree on rock classification. The question as to what constitutes correct nomenclature should receive the earnest and immediate attention of geologists, operators, and producers. Although standard textbooks on geology give correct definitions and descriptions of the general rock species, such textbooks fail to develop the subject in sufficient detail for the work under consideration. A committee composed of appointed members from the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Geological Society of America, and the

Jan 6, 1917

By J. W. Harden

AT our meeting in October last we saw in operation at Pittsburgh, the comparatively modern process of the utilization of small coal by washing, by an arrangement similar to that of Bérard or Morrison. The small coal washed was that of an old pile, the refuse of the mining of the Pittsburgh bed, and which had long lain uncared for. Value was thereby restored to it when it was converted into a very good coke. This circumstance led to comments on the mountains of broken coal lying wasted, and in its present condition worse than useless, in the neighborhood of the mines of the Wyoming Valley, though they are not confined to that district. Some things were said condemning the course which produced it, some were left unsaid. Of a system that destroys one-half the coal-bed in producing the other half there can, however, be but one opinion. Schemes have been suggested for the utilization of present accumulations which, if successfully applied, would in so far be beneficial. More than ordinary attention is now being given to the same subject in England; a Mr. Barker has invented a means by which he amalgamates the "dust," too fine to burn in ordinary grates, with a composition he calls "diamond cement," producing blocks of coal said to resist water, both hot and cold, and which a smart blow will only break to pieces, not cause to crumble. But any scheme less than the one which will prevent the wasting of coal, which still goes on, though that involves the abandonment donment of the breaker, will only be one of expediency; and the latter can only be done by the aid of the consumer. But the wasting of coal is not alone with the breaker ; much is made in the mine. The cause is not far to seek ; the remedy is with capitalist and owner. Owners and consumers then are alike interested, and they have it in their power, in the one case, to mitigate, in the other, almost entirely to remove the cause of the evil. Of consumers there is one in every

Jan 1, 1873

By J. A. Marton, N. Brown, M. Herman

AT high temperatures a deformed polycrystalline metal shows grain-boundary displacement in preference to slip lines.' This has led to the conclusion that overall strain at high temperatures is produced chiefly by grain-boundary displacement. Detailed microscopic examinations of individual grain boundaries have shown many interesting ways by which their displacement occurs; sometimes no grain deformation was observed except possibly in the immediate neighborhood of the boundary. However, X-ray examinations show that at high temperatures subgrain formation occurs;Y he process, generally called polygonization, results from lattice bending and the subsequent climb of dislocations to form low-angle boundaries. Quantitative measures of the grain-boundary displacements show that they make a minor geometrical contribution to the overall strain; the major contribution is made by grain deformation."'" A relationship between grain-boundary displacement and grain deformation was suggested by McLean, who showed how the degree of polygonization would determine the amount of grain boundary displacement: and by Dorn, who showed that for a given creep stress, the amount of grain-boundary shear was related to the overall strain and was independent of temperature.' Although the grain-boundary displacement may make a small geometrical contribution to overall strain, it may still be the rate-controlling factor in high-temperature creep. If in general grain-boundary displacement and grain deformation are dependent quantities, then the designer of a creep-resistant metal would like to know whether it is more desirable to strengthen the matrix of the grain or to increase the strength of its boundary. The widespread interest in the relationship between temperature and grain-boundary displacement makes it desirable to test the generality of Dorn's result6 that the ratio of grain-boundary displacement to overall strain is independent of the temperature for a given creep stress. In this investigation p-brass was used because it produces sharp grain-boundary displacements above 400°C. Since B-brass undergoes an order-disorder transformation which abruptly strengthens the grain, it is an excellent metal for determining whether grain-boundary displacement or grain deformation is the rate-controlling factor in creep. The problem will be confined to the temperature range where

Jan 1, 1958