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By J. L. Gillson

The big mass of anorthosite in the Lake Sanford district and the bodies of titaniferous magnetite that occur in a small area near the south margin of the mass have been described repeatedly, and the puzzling problems of the genesis of the rocks and ores have stimulated the deductive reasoning of geologists for a hundred years. Some of these men have taken a leading part in describing the anorthosite rock and forming hypotheses concerning its origin; some have contributed most to the study of the ore deposits; and some have made classical Studies introducing a basic approach to the problems of the anorthosite rock and genesis of the titaniferous magnetites. Much of the writing on the problems of rock and ore genesis has been based on physical-chemical reasoning rather than on field and microscope observations of the rocks and ores. Most of these geologists conclude that the anorthosite was formed by true magmatic crystallization, involving previous settling or squeezing out of ferromagnesian minerals from the parent magma. The associated gabbro is a separate segregation or later intrusion, and the lighter colored and finer grained facies of the anorthosite is either a chilled border zone of the anorthosite or the result of granulation by crushing of the coarse, dark blue rock of the main mass. This blue rock, called the Marcy type, is named after the highest peak in the range. The finer grained and lighter colored rock is called the Whiteface, after another mountain appropriately named for a cliff colored by this facies of the anorthosite.

Mar 1, 1956

By D. V. Carter, D. C. Williams

Four oil discoveries were made in east and east central Texas during 1940, three of which represented new fields. In the Chapel Hill field, Smith County, oil was found where formerly only gas and distillate were produced. The three oil fields discovered are: Hawkins, Wood County; Pittsburg, Camp County; and Tehuacana, Limestone County. Important extensions were made to the following fields: Bazette, Navarro County; Long Lake, Anderson and Leon Counties; Cayuga, Anderson, Freestone and Henderson Counties; Opelika, Henderson County; and Talco, Titus and Franklin Counties. At the close of the year 54 oil and gas fields were producing in the district. There were 13 other fields, 11 oil and 2 gas, which have been abandoned. The East Texas field led the district in the number of completions for the year. During the year about 622 wells (oil and distillate wells included) were completed and 80 wildcats were drilled. Production and Proration During the year 170,424,685 bbl. of oil (distillate production included) were produced in the district—a decrease of 2.6 per cent from the 175,053,729 bbl. (distillate production included) during the preceding year. The district's production for the year 1938 was 182,369,484 bhl. As usual, most of the district's annual production was in the East Texas field, which produced 139,095,694 bbl. (distillate production in- cluded) during 1940, or 81.6 per cent of the total oil produced as compared with 141,333,317 bbl. (80.7 per cent) for 1939. The December estimated daily average production in the district was 424,565 bbl. The district accounted for 34.9 per cent of the state's annual production, compared to 36.7 pcr cent of the state's 1939 production. The decrease in production for 1940 may be attributed to changes made in proration schedules. Any material changes in the district's annual production may be considered for the most part as a reflection of proration-schedule changes affecting the East Texas field, since it is by far the most important field in the area. The entire state was subject to 71 shutdown days for the year; the East Texas field to 131; and the Rodessa field (Cass County, Texas, portion) to 5 days. No important changes were made in field rules and regulations during the year regarding the allocation of oil in individual fields in this district. Discoveries The Hawkins field is in southeastern Wood County in and principally north of the town of Hawkins. Development to date indicates that the field is somewhat of an elongated anticline trending slightly east of north and the proved oil area appears at this time to cover approximately 4000 acres. The oil production has been secured from the Woodbine sand, Upper Cretaceous; a considerable quantity of gas has been encountered in the Sub-Clarksville formation (Eagleford shale) in the higher part of the structure. It appears that a free gas

Jan 1, 1941

By D. C. Williams, D. V. Carter

Four oil discoveries were made in east and east central Texas during 1940, three of which represented new fields. In the Chapel Hill field, Smith County, oil was found where formerly only gas and distillate were produced. The three oil fields discovered are: Hawkins, Wood County; Pittsburg, Camp County; and Tehuacana, Limestone County. Important extensions were made to the following fields: Bazette, Navarro County; Long Lake, Anderson and Leon Counties; Cayuga, Anderson, Freestone and Henderson Counties; Opelika, Henderson County; and Talco, Titus and Franklin Counties. At the close of the year 54 oil and gas fields were producing in the district. There were 13 other fields, 11 oil and 2 gas, which have been abandoned. The East Texas field led the district in the number of completions for the year. During the year about 622 wells (oil and distillate wells included) were completed and 80 wildcats were drilled. Production and Proration During the year 170,424,685 bbl. of oil (distillate production included) were produced in the district—a decrease of 2.6 per cent from the 175,053,729 bbl. (distillate production included) during the preceding year. The district's production for the year 1938 was 182,369,484 bhl. As usual, most of the district's annual production was in the East Texas field, which produced 139,095,694 bbl. (distillate production in- cluded) during 1940, or 81.6 per cent of the total oil produced as compared with 141,333,317 bbl. (80.7 per cent) for 1939. The December estimated daily average production in the district was 424,565 bbl. The district accounted for 34.9 per cent of the state's annual production, compared to 36.7 pcr cent of the state's 1939 production. The decrease in production for 1940 may be attributed to changes made in proration schedules. Any material changes in the district's annual production may be considered for the most part as a reflection of proration-schedule changes affecting the East Texas field, since it is by far the most important field in the area. The entire state was subject to 71 shutdown days for the year; the East Texas field to 131; and the Rodessa field (Cass County, Texas, portion) to 5 days. No important changes were made in field rules and regulations during the year regarding the allocation of oil in individual fields in this district. Discoveries The Hawkins field is in southeastern Wood County in and principally north of the town of Hawkins. Development to date indicates that the field is somewhat of an elongated anticline trending slightly east of north and the proved oil area appears at this time to cover approximately 4000 acres. The oil production has been secured from the Woodbine sand, Upper Cretaceous; a considerable quantity of gas has been encountered in the Sub-Clarksville formation (Eagleford shale) in the higher part of the structure. It appears that a free gas

Jan 1, 1941

By Robert E. Green, Edmund G. Henneke

The velocities of the three possible modes of elastic wave propagation have been calculated for single-crystal copper at 1-deg intervals throughout the standard stereographic triangle. The results are presented as isospeed contours. The deviations between the direction of maximum energy flux and specimen axes are presented as arrows drawn on stereographic projections. The orientation factors associated with dislocation motion on the primary slip system only and also on all twelve slip systems have been calculated for all three elastic waves. The orientation factors associated with a longitudinal standing wave resonant specimen have also been calculated. The results of these calculatians are compared with earlier calculations on aluminum crystals and the relevance of these results to ultrasonic attenuation measurements is discussed. GREEN and inton' have recently outlined a procedure for determining the orientation factors for dislocation damping in single crystals. The stress field associated with a given mode of elastic wave propagation is resolved on the slip systems in which it is assumed the dislocations are vibrating due to this stress field. Since, at room temperature, slip has been observed on a limited number of systems in fcc and hcp metal crystals, it is assumed that these systems are the appropriate ones to use for the resolving process. This procedure has been applied to aluminum crystals by Hinton and hreen' and to zinc crystals by Henneke and Green.3 In the present paper the modes of elastic wave propagation have been calculated for copper crystals possessing orientations at 1-deg intervals throughout the standard stereographic triangle. The deviation of the energy flux vectors from the specimen axis have been calculated for each mode. The stress field associated with each mode has been resolved on the (111)(110) slip systems in order to determine the orientation factors for dislocation damping. MODES OF ELASTIC WAVE PROPAGATION For any direction in a linear homogeneous aniso-tropic material three elastic modes can be propagated. In general, each of these modes has both longitudinal and transverse particle displacements associated with it and thus are not "pure" modes. However, there is always one component which is greatest in either a longitudinal or transverse direction and hence the mode may be referred to as quasi-longitudinal or quasi-transverse, accordingly. For certain axes of high symmetry pure modes may be propagated. The phenomenon of refraction of the energy flux vector is also exhibited by elastic wave propagation in ani-

Jan 1, 1969

By LEE H. CORNELL

Drilling activity in Kansas during 1945 continued at an accelerated pace to meet the demands of war; 1810 tests were drilled as compared with 1856 tests the previous year, 1771 tests in 1943, and 1516 tests in 1942. During the year 31 new oil pools and 10 new gas pools were discovered. Of a total of 364 wildcats drilled, 323 were dry; and of 1446 tests drilled in pools, 825 were oil wells, 197 gas wells, and 425 dry holes.

Jan 1, 1946

By J. D. A. Morrow

TO my mind the National Bituminous Coal Act so far has proved one of the unhappiest experiences that has ever befallen the bituminous coal operators of the United States. Viewed in the light of its ugly consequences everyone should recognize this measure for what it is -a weird thing as unreal as a page from "Alice in Wonderland." Indeed it might be another stanza to the tale of the Walrus and the Carpenter, with the coal operators in the role of the unfortunate oysters who were taken on that memorable ramble. It is time that coal producers open their eyes, jerk themselves out of any lingering hypnotic optimism about the price-fixing provisions of this law, demand the repeal of these corroding clauses, and then set about remedying as best they can the disastrous effects of this retromingent scheme to regulate the coal business.

Jan 1, 1939

By B. R. Queneau

[ ] B. R. QUENEAU-One of the difficulties in metallurgy has always been a lack of precision in measurement, and I think the authors are to be congratulated on developing a method which will give us an accurate and dependable quantitative estimate of the amount of retained austenite. O. ZMESKAL*-As Chairman Queneau said, this is indeed an ingenious and needed determination. We have seen figures presented of 1/2 pct retained austenite determined, and I would like to ask the authors the lower limits of this method. How far down do they feel they can go in improving the technique still more?

Jan 1, 1948

By R. H. Cox, A. S. Allen, James Paone

The southwestern Illinois communities of Belleville and Maryville lie within the greater metropolitan area surrounding St. Louis. Missouri. They also lie within that part of the Illinois coal basin where the Number 6 coalbed has been mined for more than a century. About half the coal was left as pillars to support the ground surface. Years later, however, damaging movements are affecting buildings, streets, and public utilities in some areas. They are generally believed to be related to abandoned mine workings. The threat of continued or increasing incidence of damage raises the need to explore other subsidence-control measures for protecting affected areas with high population density. Because of experience gained in a subsidence-control program of backfilling abandoned coal mines in the Applachian region and in Rock Springs, Wyoming, the Bureau of Mines was called upon to investigate the subsidence occurrences at Belleville and Maryville, and recommend protective measures. Funds ware appropriated for the Bureau to initiate subsidence-control projects at two residential sites in Belleville and one in Maryville. Subsurface investigation of the sites by diamond core drilling revealed two conditions that differ from those encountered at most sites of previous subsidence-control projects. The mine workings were found to be dry and the mine floor consisted of soft underclay which characteristically loses strength with increase of moisture. It had been anticipated that water would have percolated into the mine workings at one .or more of the sites through cracks resulting from subsidence. Under such conditions Bureau engineers believed that injection of mine waste by the pumped; slurry technique3 would provide support and stabilize any movements initiated by the softening of the clay. With discovery that the underclay deposits at the three sites have apparently not been exposed to water since the mines were operating, hydraulic backfilling of any type was considered inadvisable on the basis of present knowledge. To avoid introducing water, a portable pneumatic system is being devised for injecting minus 0.01 27 m (1/2 in.) mine waste into the mine workings. Machines for pneumatic backfilling have been used in Europe not only for subsidence protection but also for strata control, for reducing spontaneous combustion and methane accumulation, and as a means of waste disposal. The Bureau experimented with a pneumatic machine in the Northern anthracite field of Pennsylvania in the 1950's. Previously pneumatic machines have been installed in active mine workings discharging from horizontal pipelines which conveyed air- borne material into rooms to be filled. In the present adaptation to abandoned mines, the machine and air compressor will be operating at the surface, to impel material vertically down injection boreholes with sufficient air pressure to disperse fill material laterally in mine workings at the base of injection holes. Large diameter access and ventilation boreholes will be provided at one site for entry into mine workings to observe backfilling progress. The Belleville and Maryville projects are part of the Mined Land Demonstration Program of the Bureau of Mines. The Illinois State Geological Survey and Department of Mines and Minerals are furnishing technical support.

Jan 1, 1979

By AIME AIME

HE State of Utah has an area of 84,990 sq. mi., and like other inland states in the West its population, although steadily increasing, is relatively small. The fact that it is a state possessing vast mineral resources is attested by a careful study of statistics which have been compiled by Federal and State investigators. Some idea of the extent of these resources and the degree of development of a particular state or region may be gained by such a study, but in the case of Utah statistics and other available information fail to portray completely the true extent and value of its existing metallic and non-metallic resources. The State is probably more widely known for its production of metallic ores which has placed it in an eminent position among the metal mining states of the Nation.

Jan 1, 1925

By Robert H. Richards

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) THIS is in part a review paper, indicating the various steps that have been taken in developing hindered-settling apparatus, some of the standard data that have been obtained, and some of the conclusions one is led to as to the effect of it in improving concentrating-methods and machinery, and in part it brings in some unpublished work. CAUSES OF LOSS IN ORE-CONCENTRATION. In making a study of the separation of valuable minerals from the waste gangue, particularly by water concentrators, it is necessary to define, first of all, what are the causes of-loss that are likely to interfere with the concentration. Having made this definition; we can then study to see in what way the machines make their losses, and plan remedies for them in an intelligent way. Losses may be stated to occur as included grains, as flat or long grains, as fine free mineral, and as absolute slime. We will take, these up one by one, as follows: Included Grains.-Fig. 1 shows by a set of diagrams how included grains may occur: first, where the heavy mineral grains attached to the quartz are of large size; secondly, where they are of small size ; and thirdly, where very fine particles of heavy mineral are included in the quartz. We have to decide in regard to included grains whether they are rich enough to go direct to, the furnace, or poor enough to throw away, or whether they lie between these two points and require recrushing as the only means of severing the values from the waste. This last case is the only one requiring special treatment at our hands. We will therefore consider that next. * By mutual consent, this paper has been presented also before the Colorado Scientific Society, and the Canadian Mining Institute, Montreal.

Feb 1, 1911

By R. S. Wagner, R. G. Treuting, W. C. Ellis

Use of the Weisseizbevg goniometer for the study of the morphology of whisker crystals and transfer of the results to a stereograplzic projection are described. While in almost all instances a complete and rapid solution is obtained with a purely gaphical treatment, an absolute analytical treatment applicable to difficult cases is given. Examples are given for determination of growth direction and external features of a crystal, for detection of 'twintzittg, and for establislting the orientation relntionships in a kinked whisker crystal. We give here a method for the use of the Weissen-berg goniometerl" in the study of orientation relationships in "whisker" (micro) crystals3-8 and direct transference of the data to the stereographic projection. The operations are straightforward and require no involved calculations: in almost all cases solely graphical treatment is adequate. In a few complex instances, a more exact analytic method may be required. In the method, not only are equatorial reflections of an oscillation photograph used, but also those on higher layer lines, or those not occurring on a recognized layer line. Such reflections off the zero level are often essentialy to detect the presence of twinning. The method is particularly suitable for examination of whisker crystals since the axial or growth direction is almost always one of high symmetry, permitting a more restricted oscillation range to obtain the necessary reflections and an accordingly shorter exposure time. The method is also applicable when there is no lattice-related external symmetry, and is as well able to identify external crystal surfaces, when such exist, with the aid of an optical beam. Thus growth direction, identification of lateral faces, twinning, and orientation relationships in a kinked crystal can be established. A test for the Eshelby twist6-8 can readily be made. The method can be used for orientation, for structure analysis, and as an aid in the identification of an unknown crystal. Moving-film techniques have previously been employed variously for crystal-orientation studies.1,2,9-13 In particular, use of the Weissenberg method for orientation determination has been reported by Wooster and wooster.14 While their method derives the same data as here described, it differs in depending on the tracing of constant p streaks, a less than dependable phenomenon with small specimens, a few microns or less in cross section. The Laue method can and has been used for orientation studies of microcrystals,15 e.g., 2 p in cross section, but requires the extreme intensity and concentration from a microfocus tube to obtain reasonable exposure time. PRINCIPLES OF THE PRESENT METHOD Consider a crystal of random orientation with respect to the oscillation axis in a Weissenberg goniometer. Its diffraction pattern need not necessarily result in recognizable layer lines. In Fig. 1, a stereo-graphic projection of the reference sphere is given with the equatorial plane XZ normal to the oscillation axis Y, and the X-ray beam directed from X towards 2. The great circle ZZ is then normal to the beam, and the axes are right-handed. Thus the reflected X-ray beam lies at the intersection R of small circle ARB of radius 28 from 2, and of small circle RE of radius a from the rotation axis Y. a is the conventional semiapex angle of a cone of diffracted rays from the atoms aligned in the direction

Jan 1, 1967

By O. U. Bradley

The methods of handling the oil output of the Mid-Continent fields are not unlike those practised in other oil fields of the United States, and it is not expected that this paper will present any entirely novel ideas. Some features of the practice of handling this oil may be of interest, however. Wooden Gaging Tanks Practically all of the oil sold to pipe line? and other purchasing agencies throughout the Mid-Continent field is gaged from wooden tanks. Steel gaging tanks are slowly coming into use, and are preferable in many ways—leakage and evaporation are reduced, and the strapping and recalculation of capacities are unnecessary. The wooden tanks are slightly coned to facilitate tightening the hoops. The sizes in common use are 250, 500, 800 and 1600 bbl. The number and the capacity of the gaging tanks upon any producing oil property depend upon its production, and the facilities for disposing of the output. The 1600-bbl. size was the most common in the Cushing field, particularly during the period of flush production. The tanks are distributed over the leased premises in groups of two, three, and four tanks each, and these are filled from flow tanks, or through direct pipe connections with the heads of the wells. Flow tanks are merely temporary reservoirs to facilitate the transfer of oil from the wells to the gaging tanks. They diminish fire risk, and are considered indispensable on small producing properties where water is pumped with the oil, as they permit the refuse and water to 'settle out before the production is run to the gaging tanks. strapping and Calculations After a gaging tank has been strapped (measured) and its contents computed, a deduction of 3 per cent. is made from its computed volume. The strapping of a tank requires four steps: (1) The outer circumferences

Jan 1, 1920

By Kenneth C. Vincent, A. M. Gaudin

In a study1 of the action of amyl xan-thate on chalcocite in water suspension, it was found that if the xanthate is added in relatively large quantity the xanthate group can be accounted for in three forms: (1) as xanthate ion remaining in water, (2) as benzene-soluble cuprous xanthate on the chalcocite, (3) as a benzene-insoluble coating on the chalcocite. Reduction in the amount of xanthate added leads to disappearance of form I then of form 2. With minute quantities of added xanthate, substantially all the reagent is of the "unleachable" kind. Yet this unleach-able xanthate can be dissolved by pyridine to form a soluble cuprous xanthate complex, and it is sufficient in effectiveness to make chalcocite flotable even if insufficient in quantity to form a complete mono-molecular film on the mineral. In that study it was also found that chalcocite abstracts cuprous xanthate from benzene so1ution, in what may (or may not) be a case of molecular adsorption. It seemed desirable, therefore, to study further the "unleachable" xanthate on the chalcocite, and particularly to ascertain whether it is formed as a result of the benzene leach or is actually formed during the conditioning of chalcocite in aqueous xanthate solution. A 'splendid tool to make such studies has recently been perfected; that is, the use of radioactive spies or tracer atoms. With this tool, it was thought possible to answer the problem stated above, but, unfortunately, this did not prove to be true. Answer to the flotation question was clouded by the existence of rapid and selective diffusion of copper atoms in the solid mineral—a phenomenon that was totally unexpected yet remains interesting and perhaps important. Method of Radioactive Spies The method of radioactive spies is discussed in many places. Two convenient references are the article by Evans2 and the book by pollard and Davidson.3 The method was first developed by van Hevesy and paneth in 1013, when only natural radioactive isotopes were available. These isotopes are few in number, and so the method remained limited in scope. Recently the synthesis of over 350 active isotopes of all the known stable chemical elements4 has opened widely expanded possibilities for the method, A fundamental tenet of the method is that a radioactive atom and a nonradio-active atom are exactly alike until disintegration of the radioactive atom. Then, by its sudden death, the spy reveals its location. The relative abundance of spies at various locations makes it possible to ascertain the relative abundance of the corresponding nonradioactive atoms at the same times and locations. A second fundamental tenet of the method of radioactive tracers is that the radioactivity lies in the nucleus of the atom: transfer of radioactivity from one

Jan 1, 1947

By Kenneth C. Vincent, A. M. Gaudin

In a study1 of the action of amyl xan-thate on chalcocite in water suspension, it was found that if the xanthate is added in relatively large quantity the xanthate group can be accounted for in three forms: (1) as xanthate ion remaining in water, (2) as benzene-soluble cuprous xanthate on the chalcocite, (3) as a benzene-insoluble coating on the chalcocite. Reduction in the amount of xanthate added leads to disappearance of form I then of form 2. With minute quantities of added xanthate, substantially all the reagent is of the "unleachable" kind. Yet this unleach-able xanthate can be dissolved by pyridine to form a soluble cuprous xanthate complex, and it is sufficient in effectiveness to make chalcocite flotable even if insufficient in quantity to form a complete mono-molecular film on the mineral. In that study it was also found that chalcocite abstracts cuprous xanthate from benzene so1ution, in what may (or may not) be a case of molecular adsorption. It seemed desirable, therefore, to study further the "unleachable" xanthate on the chalcocite, and particularly to ascertain whether it is formed as a result of the benzene leach or is actually formed during the conditioning of chalcocite in aqueous xanthate solution. A 'splendid tool to make such studies has recently been perfected; that is, the use of radioactive spies or tracer atoms. With this tool, it was thought possible to answer the problem stated above, but, unfortunately, this did not prove to be true. Answer to the flotation question was clouded by the existence of rapid and selective diffusion of copper atoms in the solid mineral—a phenomenon that was totally unexpected yet remains interesting and perhaps important. Method of Radioactive Spies The method of radioactive spies is discussed in many places. Two convenient references are the article by Evans2 and the book by pollard and Davidson.3 The method was first developed by van Hevesy and paneth in 1013, when only natural radioactive isotopes were available. These isotopes are few in number, and so the method remained limited in scope. Recently the synthesis of over 350 active isotopes of all the known stable chemical elements4 has opened widely expanded possibilities for the method, A fundamental tenet of the method is that a radioactive atom and a nonradio-active atom are exactly alike until disintegration of the radioactive atom. Then, by its sudden death, the spy reveals its location. The relative abundance of spies at various locations makes it possible to ascertain the relative abundance of the corresponding nonradioactive atoms at the same times and locations. A second fundamental tenet of the method of radioactive tracers is that the radioactivity lies in the nucleus of the atom: transfer of radioactivity from one

Jan 1, 1947

By M. B. Ramachandra Rao

THIS paper records the results of the earth resistivity surveys made in the Godavari river in connection with the Ramapadasagar project. After describing the topographical and geological features of the area, the results of the investigation at the several sites have been mentioned. Further, a detailed account has been given of the resistivity methods adopted, the apparatus used and the interpretation of the curves. The resistivity measurements carried out over the water course have been specially outlined, and a review of the verification of the electrical indications by drilling in a number of cases, has also been presented.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. M. Steininger

The mechanism of flotation of sphalerite with sulthydryl compounds of different acidities has been interpreted in terms of chemisorption of unionized collector molecules on hydroxylated zinc surface sites. At a constant collector concentration of 1.5 x 10 -4 M, the upper pH limit of flotation has been found to be directly and closely related to the negative logarithm of the collector acidity constant, pKa The experimental results indicate that flotation is prevented when about 95% of the collector is ionized. At low pH, collector adsorption decreases because of the reduction in number of hydroxylated zinc surface sites. These two effects explain why sphalerite does not float with the more acidic sulfhydryl compounds. Typical anionic collectors for sulfide minerals are short chain xanthates or dithiophosphates which are nearly completely ionized in the generally alka- line flotation circuits.1,2 Flotation mechanisms have therefore been usually interpreted in terms of ionic collector adsorption and competition with ionic depressants of the same sign as the collector. A few attempts have been made, however, to consider adsorption of neutral collector molecules. Contact angle measurements obtained by Wark and cox3 have been interpreted by Cook and Nixon4 as representing adsorption of the free acid molecules on sulfide minerals such as pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. Cook and Nixon tried to show that the free acid concentration of the collector was substantially constant along the curves relating collector addition and minimum pH for bubble adherence. However, in a review of the subject,5 Sutherland presented new data on the flotation of pyrite with mercaptobenzothiazole which did not support the hypothesis of constant concentration of either collector ions or collector free molecules. He further showed that, with the assumption of constant occupation of surface sites, both theories lead to relations between pH and collector addition having similar mathematical expressions. In fact, with the more likely assumption of variable occupation of surface sites which results in more complex relationships, it appears impossible to

Jan 1, 1968

By O. W. Ellis

Before entering upon a general discussion of the fascinating, but at present rather controversial, subject of gases in copper, the author feels that some attention should be directed to the work which has been carried out on the solubility of gases in metals. The outstanding contributions to our knowledge of this subject have been made by Sieverts and his collaborators(1) † and by Iwasé.(2) Both the German and the Japanese investigators employed apparatus of the same general design in their investigations. Full reference need only be made, therefore, to the German scheme, which is diagrammati-cally illustrated in Fig. 1. This, to use the words of Sieverts, which he employed in describing his arrangement of apparatus at the 1928 meeting of der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Metallkunde(10): shows a diagram of the usual mode of procedure. A quartz flask contains the metal (for high temperatures a highly refractory porcelain tube is used) and is connected with the rest of the apparatus by means of a stopcock. The other parts consist of a burette divided into 1/10 c.c., a leveling tube, and an adjustable mercury reservoir. The burette is connected on one side with the gas inlet and on the other side with the absorption flask; the connection can be interrupted by means of suitable taps. Another tap permits the connection of the flask and the Töpler pump. In an experiment the quartz flask is first exhausted and then a measured quantity of gas is let in from the burette. In the first place the volume of the flask when empty is found by calibration with an inert gas. The pressure is read off on the level tube of the burette, and the temperature measured by means of a thermocouple whose welded junction lies close to the outside of the quartz flask, which is heated in an electric furnace. In several experiments the quantity of absorbed gas was transferred to a burette by means of a pump and measured. Care was taken by Sieverts to cool the ground-in joint between the reaction flask (or tube) and the rest of the system. Suitable precautions

Jan 1, 1934

By Douglas J. Harvey

The surface tension of lead-tellurium alloys (in the range 0 to 6.70 at. pct Te) ad lead-arsenic alloys (in the range 0 to 10.53 at. pct As) has been examined by the maximum bubble pressure method. The surface tension of high purity lead can be expressed over a range of temperatures (M.P. to 750°C) by the relationship = 512 — 0.133t. Arsenic and lellurium were both found to be surface active in lead. The surface excess concentration at 700°C was .found to be constant at 0.74 x 10-10 moles per sq cm for tellurium. The surface excess of arsenic at 700°C varied between 0.26 x 10-10 moles per sq cm at 0.16 at. pct to 1.5 x 10-10 moles per sq cm at 8.3 at. pet. The surface tension of lead has been investigated sporadically over the last 90 years. The first recorded study was made by Quincke1 who used a rather crude application of the drop-weight method. Hogness2 obtained the first reliable value for the surface tension of lead by measuring the pressure necessary to force the liquid metal from the end of a small capillary of known radius. Hogness gives the empirical formula: ?(surface tension)= 444 - 0.077 (l-327) which describes the relationship between surface tension and temperature ("C); This work was followed by that of Bircumshaw3 who applied the two-capillar maximum bubble pressure method of Sugden.4 The values published by Bircumshaw are in good agreement with those found by Hogness. Matuyama5 examined the surface tension of lead by the drop weight method. However, the values found are somewhat higher than those previously reported. More recent investigations by Greenaway6 and by Melford and oar' have resulted in data which are not in close agreement, but which are well within the expected range at most temperature levels. The study of the surface tension of lead alloys began with Drath and sauerwald8 who examined the lead-bismuth system. They found that the surface tension values of the alloys in this system deviated only slightly from the ideal mixture rule. Matuyarna5 examined the lead-antimony system. Bircumshaw the lead-tin, and the lead-indium system was studied by Hoar and Me1ford.10 The results of these investi- gations are summarized in Fig. 1. It may be seen that the data vary only slightly from the ideal mixture rule. As none of the metals studied and reported in the literature has a very interesting effect on the surface tension of lead,*the next logical step might be to examine the effect of metals of low solubility or nonmetals having some liquid solubility. Baes, and Kellogg11 have pointed out that the elements most likely to be surface active in liquid metals are ones of limited solubility in the liquid state and possessing weak intermolecular bonding forces in the solid state. Therefore, Group V, VI and VII nonmetals are most likely to be surface active. It was decided to examine the effect of a borderline metal, arsenic, and a nonmetal tellurium. Arsenic forms a eutectic with lead having a melting point of 290°C and a composition of 6.9 at. pct As.13 Pure arsenic sublimes when heated above 610°C. Even though alloying with lead lowers the vapor pressure, fumes containing arsenic are evolved at a very noticeable rate when lead-arsenic alloys are heated above 650°C. Tellurium raises the liquidus temperature of lead sharply to 904°C,14 the melting point of PbTe (lead-telluride). The solid solubility of tellurium in lead was determined by Greenwood and worner15 to be 0.0007 at. pct at room temperature. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Surface Tension Measurement—The two capillary maximum bubble pressure method for measuring surface tension developed by Sugden,4 and used later

Jan 1, 1962

By Edwin B. Wilson, Joseph W. Leonard, Richard W. Borio

preparation of specification coals for the utility industry is approached from the standpoint of a cooperative effort with the power company to assure that the shipped product will be a noncorrosive coal. Selective mining, coal preparation, the use of additives, and coal blending are mine-site techniques proposed as means for upgrading corrosion-retarding constituents of utility coals (CaO and MgO) while, at the same time, reducing the concentration of those constituents of coal (Na20 and K,O) which cause corrosion. Data obtained from large-scale boiler testing in combination with bench-scale physical and chemical tests are used as a basis for the formulation of mine-site procedures to improve coal combustion utilization. Electric power generation remains the greatest market for coal in the United States. A major reason for this strong market has been the ability of the coal industry to supply a superior product for combustion while maintaining competitive prices. Now that the coal industry is engaged in intensive competition with nuclear power for future energy demand, it becomes ever more imperative that superior coal products are produced. One important problem when burning some coals is a liquid phase corrosive attack on boiler tube metal in the superheater and reheater areas of the furnace where steam temperatures may exceed 1050°F. In addition to causing power outages and high maintenance costs, corrosion is a continuing barrier to the future development of more efficient steam cycles which permit lower generation costs when using coal. Research methods of the past which have been directed at finding solutions which could be applied at the power plant site have been only partially successful and are generally costly. This paper contains a suggested --method of corrosion control through investigation of the problem at the source of the trouble—the coal supplier facility. It is proposed that mine-site pre-ventative procedures be considered as an effective means of cooperative corrosion control between the power company and the coal supplier. Economic justification must be applied to the individual situation. This paper is based on recent work by Combustion Engineering, Inc. and the Coal Research Bureau of West Virginia University under a contract from the Department of the Interior Office of Coal Research.',' Results which are of importance to this discussion may be summarized as follows: 1) The alkali minerals of coal (Na2O and K2O), as measured by an acid leaching process, can be related to corrosion rate in utility boilers. As these constituents increase in a coal product, its corrosiveness can be expected to worsen. 2) The alkaline-earth minerals contained in coal, reported as total CaO and MgO reduce corrosiveness 2s their concentration increases. 3) Naturally occuring, alkaline-earth-bearing materials, such as limestone and dolomite, may be added to a coal to reduce its corrosiveness. 4) Coals with very low iron contents tend to be less corrosive. These results provide the groundwork for examination of the system of operations which occur at the supplier facility from the seam face where mining is begun to the point of loading for shipment. The Mining System Fig. 1 is a cross section of one of the typical coal seams (designated coal A) that was boiler tested during this research program. This seam is overlain by material which consists primarily of a gray-black shale. In the lower third of this seam, there exists a thin rock parting of less than 4 in. in thickness which is consistent throughout the seam. The floor material is fireclay. In order to examine mineral distribution throughout this particular seam, the Coal Research Bureau collected a

Jan 1, 1971

By William Brewster

DATING back some five years ago, various foundries made inquiries as to the probable total carbon content in a given specification and grade of pig iron. Up to that time we had no data, and except for a few occasional determinations of total carbon, no attempt had ever been made to set up routine determinations of total carbon. In fact, at that time, a cast analysis was considered sufficient, without examining at further length into possible variations of analysis between ladles of the same cast. In view of the various inquiries as to total carbon, we sampled all piles of all grades of pig iron, making complete analyses. Finding some variation in carbon content, we secured more samples and plotted the carbon content with respect to silicon in each grade of iron except for the higher phosphorus foundry iron, where it was necessary to divide the group into twenty-point phosphorus ranges. This is easily understood, owing to the falling off of carbon content with the increase in phosphorus con-tent, silicon in each case being the same. In addition, these curves clearly demonstrate the lowering of the carbon content as the silicon is increased. In order to insure accuracy and reliable determinations the following method of sampling and analysis was employed: Two pigs selected from each end of the car, each car containing iron from one 50-ton ladle, are drilled with a 5/16-in. drill all the way through from top to bottom in the center of one section of the pig. The drillings are collected and transferred to an 80-mesh sieve; the portion passing through and the portion retained are placed in separate envelopes and labeled accordingly. The amount of sample in each envelope is weighed to obtain the proportionate amount of coarse and fine drillings, then a factor weight of sample (1.3636 grams) made up of proportionate

Jan 1, 1936