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By Michael S. Roscoe

In order to more accurately predict longwall surface subsidence over the Pittsburgh No. 8 Coal in Eastern Ohio, North American Coal Corporation's Quarto Mining Company undertook or participated in several subsidence studies. Due to the changing roof geology and rapid variations in the amount of cover two separate areas were investigated at two different mines to determine the subsidence response if any to these changes. Data generated from these studies were compared with NCB derived,data for accuracy and then used to predict subsidence under houses, gas lines and other critical man made structures. The following report summarizes the results of these studies as well as the subsidence case histories of gas lines, transmission towers, houses and water wells. Problems that were encountered during both phases of this process (investigation and subsequent application) are also included.

F. G. SMITH, Waterbury, Conn.-I would like to ask whether small amounts of iron give the maximum resistance at a low temperature, and if the large amounts of iron raise the temperature at which the maximum resistance occurs? That is, with a small amount of iron, will a maximum be at, say, 10°? F. E. BASH.-With the small amount of iron, the maximum is at a lower temperature, and with the increase of iron, the maximum increases; it seems to come to a maximum and then decrease; that is, increasing the iron up to a certain value increases the temperature at which there is a maximum of resistance, and any increase of iron beyond that value will start decreasing this temperature. With 2 per cent. of iron, the maximum is lower than for 1.5 per cent. which was the value that we found to be satisfactory. F. L. DRIVER,* Jr., Harrison, N. J.-I would like to ask what chance there is of the instrument companies getting together and deciding on standards for both manganin and constantan? We make both of these alloys in this country and we find that each one of the instrument com-panies who buy these materials require different standards of specific electrical resistance and thermal e.m.f. For instance, some of our cus-tomers require an electrical resistance in manganin or therlo of 240 ohms per circular mil foot and others require it with a specific electrical resist-ance of 270 ohms per circular mil foot. They buy these alloys in relatively small quantities so that it means much extra melting and supervision when making up small quantities for each consumer. If something could be. clone to eliminate this, it would be a benefit to the instrument com-panies, who could secure their material more cheaply, and to the manu-facturers, who would not have to spend so much time and effort in special manufacturing.

Jan 12, 1919

By C. W. Stratford

[During the last few years, the necessity for development work has been generally recognized by executives throughout the oil industry, resulting in greatly accelerated progress and the adoption of many noteworthy improvements in refining methods and equipment. Several years ago, the Associated Oil Co. decided to improve distillation methods with the object of reducing refining costs. This extremely interesting work was entrusted to the writer, and W. S. James, now Chief of Research for Studebaker Corpn. of America, was selected as the principal collaborator. The latter contributed much during his two years with the Associated Oil Co., to the development work that has followed. The writer extends to the Associated Oil Co. his appreciation for permission to disclose the details of distilling equipment. In petroleum refining the principal requisites of good economics are the separation of high-priced distillates from those of lower price; maxi-mum yield of any desired distillate; lowest capital investment in refining equipment; lowest cost of operation and maintenance, and the best adaptability and flexibility of the same refinery equipment for handling crudes of widely varying characteristics. The first two items mentioned, separation and yields of distillates are determined by efficiency of fractionating equipment,. Discussion in this paper is chiefly concerned with oil-heating equipment, combustion and furl economy. It has long been well known that velocity plays a very important part in all heat transfer systems. Any betterment in specific transfer. rates in such systems must. always involve velocity. Realizing this fact, IV decided to adopt as a basic principle, the employment of energy to impart velocity required for high transfer rates through a heating diaphragm, and our method of modernizing obsolete shell stills is founded on this principle. Mechanical energy is usually cheap and its rational rspcntliture is returned in the form of greatly increased heat transfer rates, on both oil and gas sides of the sheet. Certainly there is nothing new in this principle, the only novelty being that of our peculiar method of application On the oil side (Fig. I) use is made of a centrifugal pump to jet the oil against the heated sheet thereby creating a high velocity sheet flow over the entire fired area. Such a pump is one of the most efficient machines, so far developed, for moving fluids. 'I'he oil, under pressure impinging

Jan 1, 1928

By AIME AIME

NAPOLEON'S dictum that an Army travels on its stomach has not changed in this present war, but the things an Army's stomach calls for would be more than strange to Napoleon. Today one of the main articles of diet for the mechanized army is oil and gasoline, and the chief and most efficient source of 'apply overland is the pipe line. It was a flexible 4-in. pipe line that supplied the voracious appetite of tanks, trucks, jeeps, and planes across the North African desert. and it is the 1800-mile pipe line from Calcutta to Kunming, Yunnan Province in China, the longest in the world, that supplied oil and 100-octane gas for the trucks, tanks, Jeeps, and planes fighting on the Assam-Burma-China front in recent months. Completion of this approximately 1800-mile pipe line to China over rivers that had never been bridged, over hill that towered 9000 ft., and over swamps

Jan 1, 1945

By John R. Lotz

DEVELOPMENTS in Iran currently arousing interest in a considerable portion of the world, particularly on the part. of that country's immediate neighbor on the North and in our own country, an inseparably related to and largely dependent upon the government's attempts to strengthen its economy and improve the standard of living of its people. These efforts are encompassed by provisions of the Seven-Year Development Plan recently enacted and not, in the process of implementation. It is a fine example of what one financially sound but extremely backward and poorly equipped country has undertaken to do on its own account and with its own resources. This Seven-Year Plnil was formally authoriztld by an act of the Iranian Parliament in February 1948. Its stated objects are to carry out such plans for the development of the country and its economy as ail1 raise the standard of livinc: and standard of education of the people, and re- duce the cost of living. A seven-yrar program for carrying out the work within the limits of appropriations was assigned under the law. The total amount to be expended during the seven- year period was fixed at the equivalent of $670 millioil at current rates of exchange.

Jan 1, 1950

ARTICLE I NAME AND OBJECT SEC. 1. This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc.; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II- MEMBERS SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3. Associates; 4. Junior Associates. All members shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that Honorary Members, Junior Associates, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not e entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot. SEC. 2. Members shall comprise all those persons who on the third Monday of February, 1918, were members of the Institute, and in addition thereto, all those thereafter elected or transferred into the class of Members. A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the class of Members must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years' employment in the practice of-engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. Graduation from the scientific course of a college, approved by the Committee on Membership, shall be considered equivalent to two years' employment, as required in the previous sentence. Employment as a teacher of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, if in direct charge, may be considered a position of responsibility as specified in the second paragraph. Persons employed in research or any scientific literary work or in teaching in the scientific departments of colleges, approved by the Committee on Membership, who at the same time are engaged in consulting or in the active practice of mining, geology, or metallurgy, shall be entitled to consider the time so spent in active practice as equivalent to an equal length of time of employment in positions of responsibility, . provided the work done or the positions held seem to the Committee on Membership to warrant the. equivalency. The requirement of three years' employment in positions of responsibility may be waived by the Committee on Membership in the case of persons who have done notable original work in mining,. geology, or metallurgy, or have won distinction by

Jan 1, 1925

SEC, 1, This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc,; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II MEMBERS SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3, Associates; 4, Junior Associates. All members shall be equally- entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that Honorary Members, Junior Associates, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not be entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot, SEC. 2, Members shall comprise all those persons who on the third Monday of February, 1918, were members of the Institute, and in-addition thereto, all those thereafter elected or transferred into the class of Members. A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the class of Members must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years', employment in the practice of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. Graduation from the scientific course of a college, approved by the Committee on Membership,' shall be considered equivalent to two years' employment, as required in the previous sentence, Employment as -a teacher of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, if in direct charge, may be considered a position of responsibility as specified in the second paragraph. Persons employed in research or any scientific literary work or in teaching in the scientific departments of colleges, approved by the Committee on Membership, who at the same time are engaged in consulting or in the active practice of mining, geology, or metallurgy, shall be entitled to consider the time so spent in active practice as equivalent to an equal length of time of employment in positions of responsibility, provided the work done or the positions held seem to the Committee on Membership to warrant the equivalency. The requirement of three years' employment in positions of responsibility may be waived by the Committee on Membership in the case of persons who have done notable original work in mining, geology, or metallurgy, or have won distinction by research or investigations, in one or more of these subjects.

Jan 1, 1928

By Sherwin F. Kelly

FRONTIERS of geological knowledge retreated further this past year before an ever-widening geophysical attack, as governments and endowed institutions continued to take an increasing practical interest in the geophysical line of approach to the study of earth phenomena. A year ago I opened this annual review with a brief account of the efforts to discover what formations lie concealed beneath the deep sediments which form the superficial portions of the Continental Shelf off the eastern United States. That work was but the beginning, and 1938 saw its continuation and expansion. With the assistance of a Guggenheim Fellowship, Maurice Ewing pushed his researches in the development of instruments and techniques for deep-sea seismic refraction studies. Ewing's early refraction profile from the Virginia Capes to the edge of the Continental Shelf has been followed by a similar traverse in Great Britain from the coast of Cornwall to the edge of the Continental Shelf southwest of England. This showed that the thickness of the sedimentary mantle and the rates of slope of the basement surfaces there are comparable to those in the Virginia Cape district.

Jan 1, 1939

By L. E. Paulson

INTRODUCTION The Northern Great Plains has 16 billion tons of strippable lignite (1). Presently, 15 million tons per year are mined; essentially all is used for generation of electrical power. In the future, additional large quantities will be consumed in the production of gaseous and liquid fuels. A major consideration in design and operability of power stations and conversion plants is the nature of the ash or inorganic constituents of the lignite used. These inorganic components cause fireside fouling in boilers, exert a catalytic effect in liquefaction and gasification, and contribute to particulate and SO2 emissions. Ash fouling on fireside boiler tubes cause reduced heat transfer and gas flow which limits boiler performance. Severe fouling can result in shutdown of the boiler. A comprehensive test program in both pilot plant and field studies at the Grand Forks Energy Technology Center (GFETC) has shown that ash fouling increases with increased sodium content of low-rank coals (2). The sodium in the coal can be

Jan 1, 1983

By Louis R. Hodell

WHEN the drilling of an oil well is completed a permanent opening from the reservoir to the surface must be provided. This is done by lining the hole with pipe, commonly known as casing. In the past, all but a small amount of casing has been run in the hole and joined by threads and couplings. Recently, however, in California, Texas, and Oklahoma, there has been a definite tendency 'to adopt -the welded joint for the following reasons: (1) Plain end casing for welding may be bought for 15 per cent less than thread-and-coupled casing; some of this is offset by the cost of welding the pipe in the hole but a respectable net profit remains.

Jan 1, 1937

By Arthur F. Taggart

The quality of aggregate materials is. of major importance in governing durability and permanence of concrete structures. The problem of selecting suitable aggregate materials is two-fold. Geological factors include the type and character of the aggregate source, presence of known or suspected reactive constituents, and presence of thermally incompatible materials. Laboratory investigations include petrographic studies, soundness and reactivity tests, and tests of thermal properties. The importance of each factor in the selection of satisfactory aggregate material is considered in detail.

Jan 1, 1950

By Warden A. Moller

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) THE Fushun coal-field, now being opened up by the South Manchurian Railway Co., is connected with the main line by a branch, 30 miles long, from Sui Chia Tun, 10 miles south of Mukden, the capital of Manchuria. The coal-field, which lies on the southern bank of the Hun river, 25 miles east of Mukden, consists of a long narrow valley,. running east and west between hills composed of granitic and volcanic rocks. At the foot of the northern hills, the Hun river flows westward towards the Liao river, which drains the greater part of South Manchuria. At the foot of the southern hills, resting immediately upon volcanic rocks, and overlain by 20 ft. of alluvial, is a thick layer of Tertiary shales, carrying near the base two coal-seams. In many places the lower of these two seams is in immediate contact with volcanic lauds and basalts, the flows of which were evidently both prior and subsequent to the formation of the coal-seams. This contact has practically destroyed the lower seam for commercial purposes. The value of the field lies in the upper seam, which, for a length of nearly 8 miles, varies from 100 to 130 ft. thick. Of this seam, 85 per cent is good coal. The seam dips to the north conformably with the shales, at angles of from 25° to 30°, and appears to have an uninterrupted dip for about 1.5 miles before being possibly cut o$' by the northern hills. The coal-bearing shales extend east and west for a length of about 20 miles, but towards the east the continuity of the seams is broken by intrusive rocks. The coal is of the sub-bituminous variety, low in ash, bright in appearance, and breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It has the usual qualities of Tertiary coal-quick steam-raising and poor stacking-qualities. Pieces of resin, varying in size from

Apr 1, 1910

By Ovid W. Eshbach

ENGINEERING education has been powerfully affected by the impact of war, just how powerfully can be better understood after considering the postwar problems regarding students, staff, and plant. In time of war no one will question the necessity of expediency of military training. With the cessation of hostilities, expediency gives way to the evolutionary process of strengthening engineering education as need is exemplified by experience. During the war, except for the Navy V-12 program, engineering education was at its lowest ebb of the century. Freshman enrollments were largely limited to those graduating from high school at the age of seventeen; and the upperclass, to those disqualified for active service. In most schools the experienced staff was either in service or government and industrial research. Many may never return to their former occupations. The most immediate problem is that of maintaining and building a staff to meet the enrollment of returning veterans. It is estimated that out of the eleven

Jan 1, 1945

By AIME AIME

THE United Electric Coal Companies, operating large strip mines at various points in Illinois, pioneered in developing and perfecting the strip method of mining coal by use of large shovels and drag-lines. Coal stripping was first started on the properties owned by this company near Danville, Ill., in 1885. The first mechanical' excavating machine used for the purpose was really a dredge minus the hull, which had been purchased from the Marion Steam Shovel Co. It was erected on a wood frame supported by wheels and was referred to as a dry-land dredge or stripping machine. Wood was used throughout in the construction of this primitive excavator, even for the boom which was 50 ft. long. A single-cylinder vertical steam engine furnished power to hoist the %-yd. dipper arid swing the boom. 400 cu. yd. of overburden moved in a day was a great record.

Jan 1, 1936

By Irwin Roman, Thomas C. Serman

It has been known for many years that when a wire is moved in a magnetic field, an electromotive force is developed which is proportional to the rate at which the wire is moved in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic intensity and to the magnetic intensity itself. If the ends of the wire are connected to a current indicator, the current behaves exactly as though the source of electromotive force were a galvanic cell. If a wire is wound circularly and rotated uniformly around a diameter not parallel to the intensity, the current flowing through the wire will be alternating of sinusoidal shape. If, instead of a single loop, there are several turns wound in a short helix, the electromotive force developed will be approximately proportional to the number of turns, the area of the helix and to the speed of rotation. The maximum electromotive force will be developed when the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the field; if this is not so, only the component of the intensity that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation is effective. This is the principle of the usual earth inductor. With a few turns of wire and comparatively slow rotation, it is possible to produce a considerable deflection of a galvanometer. If two similar coils are rotated together at two different points for which the magnetic field intensities perpendicular to the axes of rotation are different, the electromotive forces developed will each depend on its corresponding intensity and be a measure of that intensity. If the intensities are sufficiently different so that the electromotive forces may be compared, the two intensities may be compared. This is the principle

Jan 1, 1934

By L. C. Brown, E. B. Hawbolt

The formation of grain boundary precipitates has been studied in Ag-5.64 wt pcl Al alloys at 688°C. Large-grain specinzerzs were used and the boundary misorientation measured by X-ray diffraction. At low-angle grain boundrrries Primary sideplates form. u)hile abore a 17-deg misorientation lenticular precipitates predominate. Growth of the lenticular precipitates was studied on individual grain boundaries using a statistical technique. The thickening and lengthening rates appeared to be independent of &apos;pain boundary misorientation, indicating that grain boundary diffusion was not significant in this system. The precipitates grew urith constant shape, with both the length and thickness increasing parabolically with time. The parabolic lengthening rates were unexpected since previous theory and experimerztal results had indicated linear growth. By approximating the shape of the precipitate to that of an oblate spheroid grouling with constant shape an equivalent diffusion coefficienl was calculated. The zlalue obtained was in good agreement with nleasurements obtained fron, diffusiorz couples. IF a single-phase alloy is heated or cooled to a temperature such that the phase becomes supersaturated, there is a tendency for a second phase to precipitate from it in order to remove the supersaturation. Precipitation takes place initially on grain boundaries due to preferred heterogeneous nucleation, but subsequently Widmans kitten plates may form in the grain interiors if the grain size and supersaturation are sufficient. The type of grain boundary precipitate formed depends on the nature of the boundary. Aaronson1 and clark2 have shown that grain boundary misorientation can be characterized by the simple parameter R, where and X, Y, and Z represent the minimum rotations about three orthogonal axes required to bring the two lattices forming the grain boundary into coincidence. The maximum value for R is 60 deg. In using this parameter the orientation of the grain boundary itself is, of course, neglected. However it was found in both Fe-si3 and A1-Ag2 that the precipitate shape depended only on the parameter R. Clark found that the vast majority of precipitates formed were allo-triomorphs— lens-shaped precipitates that grew along the grain boundaries. At low-angle boundaries, however, (R < 15 deg) Widmanstatten sideplates nucleated at the grain boundaries and grew into the adjacent grains. It has been reported that the rate of growth of grain boundary precipitates is controlled by diffusion within the supersaturated phase.&apos; The theories which have been developed for growth rates have assumed the diffusion coefficient constant over the composition range of the supersaturated phase. This is a fairly good approximation if the composition range involved is not large. Thickening rates have been calculated using the theory developed by Zener4 and by Frank5 for the growth of planar precipitates. A parabolic growth law

Jan 1, 1968

By George S. Rice

ARIAL maps of prospective mineral-bearing territory have become almost indispensable in all the branches of exploration, and have proved particularly useful in the great oil area of the Southwest. About nine years ago aerial photographic mapping in this area was begun. The early product was lacking in scale accuracy and other control features, which limited its effective use. Since then, the evolution of the technique of such mapping has been steady, with several mapping companies collaborating with five of the leading oil companies, and aerial maps have been prepared covering practically the entire area.Improvements in cameras, film, and developing equipment and practice have resulted in more uniform and clearer photographs, but the outstanding development has been the accuracy obtained with respect to scale and all other control features. Maps are no

Jan 1, 1936

John M. Cairns, in an interesting letter dated June. 19, 1918, tells us of his experiences in Italy. He says, "It may interest you to know I came out to Italy after being on the Afghan frontier of Indian Baluchistan, in August last year, and for some time was posted at Turin as Railway Transport officer. At that time Turin was in the toils of the riots which were the forerunners and preliminaries which led up to the great Italian retreat (Capretto). Since then I have been all over Italy from (deleted by the censor) in Transportation intelligence, and now have just been transferred to the Directorate of Requisitions and Hirings, which now permits great opportunities of going nearly all over Italy (deleted by the censor). My address is L. of C. Branch, D. R. & H., A. P. 0. L/1, I. E. F.

Jan 9, 1918

By John E. Riddell

This review is based on a questionnaire sent out in 1959 to 24 Canadian exploration companies, known to be active in the mineral exploration field, concerning their practice in the use of applied geo-chemical techniques in Precambrian terrains. Of the companies questioned, 21 returned completed questionnaires and of these, 15 companies stated that they had some experience in this type of work. Of the companies who stated that they had no experience in geochemical prospecting in glaciated Precambrian areas it is interesting to note that only three have reported that they do not use applied geochemistry at all. The others have reported that they make use of applied geochemistry in New Brunswick and in the Cordillera in areas of light glaciation. Their opinion is that it is a useful aid when accompanied by other techniques in evaluating mineralized areas. GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS Table I reviews the type of geochemical surveys used by these companies, and the following points of interest should be noted.

Jan 11, 1960

By Takeyasu Ito, Mayumi Someno, Kazuhiro Goto

SINCE the pioneering work by Kiukkola and Wagner,1 many experiments have been reported on solid electrochemistry at elevated temperatures. However, the studies have been confined to experiments under isothermal conditions. One may conceive many situations under nonisothermal conditions. With two different temperatures T1, and T2 at the two electrodes, the electromotive force, E of a Galvanic cell will be expressed by the following equation under a steady state heat transfer in solid electrolytes of zirconia-lime and thoria-lime. E = ^ $ l&-dGO2+a(T2-Ti) [1] where tO2- is the transference number of oxygen ions in the electrolyte, Go, is the chemical potential of oxygen, and a is the coefficient of the thermoelec-tromotive force due to the temperature difference. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the coefficient of the thermoelectromotive force for zirconia-lime and thoria-lime under isobaric condition. The physical meaning of this coefficient is out of the scope of the present communication. The experimental cell assembly is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The zirconia-lime electrolyte tube and thoria-lime electrolyte tube were 8.0 mm OD and 5.0 ID, from commercial sources with chemical analyses of 94.8 wt pct ZrO2, 3.85 pct CaO, 0.83 pct SiO2, 0.25 pct TiO2, and 0.05 pct Fe2O3; and 95.0 pct ThO2, 4.0 pct CaO and rare earth metal oxides, respectively. The specific gravity was 5.5 g per cu cm for zirconia-lime and 9.8 g per cu cm for thoria-lime. Original powder size before shaping and sintering the tube was several microns for both electrolytes. The distance separating the two electrodes was 4.0 or 5.0 cm. Platinum wire of 0.5 mm diam was used for the electrodes. The temperature gradient was controlled by heating one electrode with a small heating coil of nichrome wire. The temperatures at the two electrodes were measured with two calibrated Pt-13 pct Rh:Pt thermocouples, directly contacting the two platinum electrodes. The atmosphere was either air or pure oxygen. The partial pressure of oxygen in air was considered equal at the vicinities of the two electrodes, with negligibly small thermal segregation in the gas phase. The difference of the chemical potential of oxygen was controlled only by the temperature difference at the two electrodes and not by the oxygen pressure difference. The temperature ranges were 600" to 1200°C for zirconia-lime and 850" to 1200°C for thoria-lime electrolytes. Fig. 2 shows the relation of the measured electromotive force and the difference of the oxygen chemical potential at the two electrodes for zirconia-lime and thoria-lime electrolytes. The electromotive forces in the figure were measured by a *0.05 mv potentiometer. The chemical potential difference was calculated by the following equations.&apos;

Jan 1, 1970