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By Leon Dominian

I. INTRODUCTION APART from local needs in the country's development, the interest attached to Turkish fuels grows chiefly out of the importance of the railway industry in Asiatic Turkey. Geographical conditions make of the tracks in this region the most essential link in a chain of world-girdling lines. By its position Asia Minor can be likened to a bridge in the through routes destined to connect European factories with Asiatic and African markets. An uninterrupted right-of-way from points in central Europe to populous Indian cities must necessarily pass through the valleys A Anatolia. Crossing thence the Taurus Mountains its natural passage is indicated as the Mesopotamian lowland and the shores of the Indian Ocean. Similarly land connection between Europe and Africa can be obtained only by passage through Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine. The occurrence of fuel within an area of such significance from the

Jan 6, 1916

By B. Barlin

Introduction The development of metallurgical practice at lambia Broken Hill is directly related to the change in mineralization of the deposits as mining progressed from the open pits to underground. The ore consists of a mixture of lead and zinc sulphide minerals, together with abundant silicates, carbonates and other oxidized minerals of these metals. The irregularity that characterizes the shape of the orebodies applies equally to their mineral content, which makes ore reserve calculations and the maintenance of a balanced feed to the metallurgical plants, problems of some magnitude. History The Rhodesia Broken Hill Development ,Company was formed in 1904 after an Australian prospector, T. G. Davey, discovered the outcrops in 1902. In the early years zinc ores were calcined for shipment but this proved uneconomic. Cerussite outcrops were then smelted directly in blast furnaces for the production of lead until 1929 when ore above the water level was exhausted.

Jan 1, 1970

By Donald C. Barton

The elastic earth waves produced naturally by earthquakes have been used for a long time as evidence from which to draw conclusions in ; regard to the constitution of the interior and crust of the earth. The I elastic earth waves produced artificially by occasional explosions and ' recorded by seismological observatories were used to draw conclusions regarding the geology of the intervening area. Intentionally produced elastic earth waves in the past five years have come to be used extensively in the investigation of very local geologic structure. The scismic method of working geologic structure, which makes use of artificially controlled explosions and the resulting earth waves, has developed almost clairvoyant power in handling certain geologic situations; and, in the discovery of salt domes in the Gulf Coastal Plain region of Texas and Louisiana, it has scored the most brilliant success. The first proposal for the use of artificial earthquakes in the study of velocity of elastic earth waves in the surface formations of the earth's crust were made before 1888, by the English seismologists mallet and Abbot. Partly on the basis of their work, A. Schmidt in 1888 proposed the use of time-(Iistnncc graphs of artificial earthquakes to study the variation of vellocity with depth. Belar in 1902 proposed the practical 'application of such investigation in connection with boring tunnels. Galitzcn repeated1y (1912. I9IX) proposed the use of explosions to study the velocity of the longitudinal and transverse waves in the uppermost formations and pointed out that the velocity depended in a high degree on the physical character of the beds and that from changes in the velocity, conclusions could be drawn in regard to the composition of the beds. Somewhat the same thought was proposed by von dem Borne (1908), by Benndorf, Udden and others.' First Use of Artificially Excited Earth waves to Determine Local structure The first application of the use of artificially excited elastic earth waves to thc determination of local geologic structure was worked out,

Jan 1, 1929

P. E. McKinney,* Washington, D. C.-Observation made after examination of a number of defective gun forgings, together with a history of their manufacture, has strongly suggested that so-called "flakes" and woody or fibrous fractures are not necessarily analogous and are often caused by entirely different conditions. While some flaked bars may show fibrous areas in the fracture, it does not necessarily follow that the conditions causing these areas are the same as cause the fibrous, or so-called laminated, structures so commonly met in gun forgings subject to transverse tensile test; the fibrous structure formed in some flaky bars are merely incidental to the conditions causing the flakes. It is believed that the so-called flakes, or bright silvery spots, are mainly due to inherent physical defects in the steel, which existed at the very origin of the steel, rather than metallographic defects caused by subsequent irregularities in mechanical or thermal treatment. While great care in forging and treatment may, in a measure, tend to overcome the evil effect of the defects, with many heats of ingots, no such precautionary measures are needed to produce perfect forgings- and with such heats of steel it would be impossible, no matter how carelessly handled, to produce intentionally a forging containing the defects commonly known as flakes. It has been found possible, on several occasions, to actually predict flaky forgings from an inspection f the ingot after it had solidified, and in such cases no amount of careful forging or heat treatment would prevent the occurrence of such defects in the forging. The inspection of the physical condition of the ingot, and especially the character of the shrinkage on. the top of the ingot, has been given too little thought and study in this connection.

Jan 5, 1919

By Sydney H. Ball

AMERICAN consumption of industrial diamonds has increased five fold in the past 25 years and today accounts for 15 to 20 percent of the world's sale of rough diamonds. In another decade the value of industrial diamonds sold may well equal or exceed that of gemstones. It is generally understood that industrial diamonds are one of the strategic minerals being stocked by the Government in the present crisis to ensure rapid and efficient armament production. Diamond die making is a trade largely confined to artisans in Switzerland and in certain parts of France. Today, in addition to turning out pilots, we should train expert artisans in diamond die making, for thousands of miles of tremendously small-gauge wire will be needed to make the instruments by which the efficiency and safety of these pilots is assisted.

Jan 1, 1941

By C. W. Covington, H. C. Cook, J. F. Libsch

Sputtered aluminum thin films were prepared in each of two conventional bell-jar vacuum systems. One system utilized an inner "getter sputtering" enclosure; the second system was a standard diode sputterirlg arrangement. Consistent and repeatable film properties were obtained in both systems provided sufficient cleanup and presputter time was allowed. The various problems associated with aluminum sputtering are discussed, with pavticular attention to the vzinimization of film contamination by outgassing and oxidation. The growth and structure of the aluminum thin films were studied with the aid of electron wzicroscopy and related to deposition rate, substrate temperature, and film thickness. The resistivity of the films was correlated to film structure and surface roughness. Resistiuities as low as 3.5 microhm-cm (2.3 x bulk resistiuity) were measured for relatively thick films (20,000). THIS investigation was undertaken to explore the problems and film characteristics associated with the sputtering of aluminum. Earlier work reported on aluminum sputtering has stressed the contamination of both the cathode and film as well as abnormally low deposition rates.' Data on sputtering yields,3 however, indicate that aluminum sputtering could be practical. Recently, it was shown by Theuerer and Hauser3 that aluminum sputtering was feasible in a conventional oil-diffusion pumped vacuum system provided an inner "getter sputtering" enclosure was employed to minimize gaseous contamination. This technique employs the getter action of aluminum to produce extremely low reactive gas partial pressures in the deposition zone. Aluminum films have already found use in solid-state electronic devices such as transistors and integrated microcircuits. To the present time, most aluminum films have been prepared by evaporation due to the ease with which this metal can be evaporated. Controlled sputtering of aluminum offers a number of advantages over evaporation, however, such as 1) manufacturing compatibility with other metals which must be sputtered, 2) better control of process variables resulting in more repeatable and uniform films, 3) generally better adhesion resulting from higher-energy metal atoms, 4) built-in material supply for continuous operation, and 5) the ability to deposit alloys. The data presented in this paper are the result of two separate studies. One study utilized a small "getter sputtering" enclosure (System A) and was concerned with the structure and properties of thin aluminum films up to about 1600A thick. In this thickness range, study of the film structure was possible with transmission electron microscopy. The second study was conducted with a conventional diode sputtering apparatus (System B) and covered $ much wider range of film thickness up to about 34,000A. Emphasis was placed on developing techniques which would extend aluminum sputtering to an existing in-line continuous deposition process.4 I) EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE System A. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the "getter sputtering" inner chamber used and Fig. 2 is a photograph of this chamber mounted on an 18-in. access ring of a standard liquid-nitrogen trapped bell-jar vacuum system. This chamber was designed after a similar system used by Theuerer and auser.3 The configuration allowed the glow to emanate in all directions from the cathode. Argon (99.99') was allowed to enter only at the top of the chamber such that most of the reactive gases entering with the argon were reacted with the aluminum vapor and deposited on the chilled walls of the chamber before reaching the deposition zone. Provision was also made as shown, Fig. 1, for heating and cooling the substrate from about 20" to 400°C. Two substrate materials were used: Corning 7059 glass (12 by 12 by 0.048 in.) and carbon films about

Jan 1, 1967

By W. S. Morris

PETROLEUM'S importance in World War II can perhaps be better realized by the recitation of a few facts and figures: Gasoline needs in this war are already eighty times greater than in the last war. It takes nearly three pounds of gasoline to deliver one pound of bombs, filled with petroleum explosives, on an enemy objective. Every American soldier overseas requires an average of more than fifty gallons of petroleum products per week, with the oil used by Navy and supply ships and America's Allies boosting the consumption of oil per soldier to an even higher figure. Every oil well in the United States now must produce each day an average of four barrels of oil for war and combat jobs. More than fifty million gallons of gasoline, fuel oils, lubricants, and other petroleum products are now going directly to the fighting forces every day.

Jan 1, 1945

By Edgar C. Bain

Jan 1, 1932

By JAMES SCULLY

For the last 4 years political leaders have found a new subject on which they can safely generalize wihout creating opposition. That subject is commodity prices. Since the four-fold increase in OPEC crude oil prices, public attention has focussed as never before on the subject of commodity prices. To advocate stabilizing commodity prices is akin to supporting motherhood or peace or better schooling. Everyone gives lip service to the concept that stable commodity prices are desirable. It is easier to state the principle than to achieve it. Prices that are stable in terms of one currency may be clearly unstable in terms of a different currency. This has become a troublesome matter since 1971, when the world's leading trading currencies were set free to float in relation to each other. To illustrate: consider copper prices in the interval between the end of 1974 and the end of 1977. During those 3 years, the copper price in pounds sterling on the London Metal Exchange rose by 25 per cent. During that period, however, in terms of the USA dollar equivalent, the price was unchanged. And during that period, in terms of the German mark equivalent the price shrank by 13 per cent while the Japanese yen equivalent fell by 20 per cent. Thus a price that appears stable in dollars, rose in terms of pounds sterling and fell in terms of marks and yen. Had this result been achieved as a consequence of an international effort to stabilize prices, an American would have said the effort was successful. An Englishman would have said it had failed to prevent a price rise. And a German or a Japanese consumer would have been happy to have covered his copper needs at a lower cost in terms of his own currency.

Jan 1, 1978

By A. T. Stroebel, J. A. Goodwin

Diatomite deposits, the skeletal remains of tiny aquatic plants called diatoms, are found in many parts of the world. Only a few of these deposits are of commercial value. Open pit mining is used in nearly all deposits now being worked. Processing methods range from simple drying, crushing, sizing and packaging to carefully controlled and highly sophisticated calcining and air classification procedures, employing the latest control and testing techniques. The major uses of processed diatomite are infiltration as filter aids and fillers and extenders.

Jan 1, 1983

By N. B. Davis

I . INTRODUCTION WHILE working with a number of very sticky cracking clays from western Canada the writer became interested in a study of the cause of the excessive plasticity, This led to a review of the rather bulky literature on the subject and the finding that plasticity still remains to be satisfactorily explained. Most of these investigations seem to have been carried on solely from the chemical viewpoint, the geologic aspects having been ignored. In nearly every case, the investigators have worked with the higher-grade clays of low to medium plasticity, such as the kaolins, the excessively plastic ones having generally been neglected, partly because of their limited application, yet the author believes that these are

Jan 2, 1915

By Leon Dominian

Page I. Introduction......................237 11. Coal..................239 (a) Western Asia Minor.........239 I-. Lignites of the Marmora-Bgean zone.239 2. The Black Sea basin.............241 (b) Eastern Asia Minor..........244 (c) Syria................246 (d) Mesopotamia................ 246 (e) European Turkey.'.....'..... 247 111. Oil and Allied Hydrocarbons...............248 (a) Early Use of Oil and Bitumen in Turkey........248 (b) Syria........................ 250 (c) Mesopotamia.................... 250 (d) European Turkey.................. 256 I. INTRODUCTION Apart from local needs in the country's development, the interest attached to Turkish fuels grows chiefly out of the importance of the railway industry in Asiatic Turkey. Geographical conditions make of the tracks in this region the most essential link in a chain of world-girdling lines. By its position Asia Minor can be likened to a bridge in the through routes destined to connect European factories with Asiatic and African markets. An uninterrupted right-of-way from points in central Europe to populous Indian cities must necessarily pass through the valleys of Anatolia. Crossing thence the Taurus Mountains, its natural passage is indicated as the Mesopotamian lowland and the shores of the Indian Ocean. Similarly, land connection between Europe and Africa can be obtained only by passage through Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine. The occurrence of fuel within an area of such significance from the

Jan 1, 1917

By Walter Miller

Construction of new large refineries was small in 1937, but extensive modernization and expansion of existing plants were made, bearing out the observation of the Bureau of Mines that the trend is strongly toward fewer and larger refineries. Building the first large combination skimming and cracking unit of 20,000-bbl. capacity was a startling achievement four or five years ago, but it has been exceeded many times since, and at least four units with a capacity of 30,000 bbl. or more were contracted for during 1937, as well as many other units of smaller but still substantial capacity. Installation of polymerization plants for producing high-antiknock blending naphthas from refinery gases progressed at an accelerated rate in refineries affording sufficient raw gas to make the use of the process profitable. The total productive capacity of polymerization units built and contracted for in the United States is now about 25,000 bbl., equivalent to the gasoline production from approximately 55,000 bbl. of crude oil a day. Octane Fuels Also utilizing refinery gases—the butylene fractions in particular—the plants for manufacture of iso-octane increased in number to such an extent that the combined capacities will enable the air forces of the United States shortly to go entirely to the use of 100-octane fuel, indications being that the Army will reach that position in 1938, with the Navy not far behind. Commercial air-lines are expected to take advantage of the greater power of high-antiknock fuels to gain the increased power and increased pay loads possible with their use. Work done on producing fuels with octanes beyond the 100 point has recently been reported, and their production can be expected, although at high cost, when the economics of the situation justifies and engines capable of utilizing them efficiently are available. In the field of motor fuels, important work was reported to the A.P.I. at its annual meeting, on the effect of altitude on antiknock requirements

Jan 1, 1938

By Arthur F. Taggart

MR. CHAIRMAN: Congratulations! Your four-ring milling show this year was a dandy. It cleared our minds, for a few hours at least, of what Hitler, Hirohito, the New Deal, and the tribe in the Treasury are trying to do to strangle American enterprise. We mustn't forget this, but it's a relief to get our thoughts away from it occasionally. GRINDING-There was a further contribution to the excellent work that the Allis-Chalmers laboratory staff has been doing for the grinding fraternity in compiling-and publishing-a carefully quantitative list of comparative resistances of ores and other materials to comminution (T.P. 1579, Bond-Maxson). A diagnostic accuracy of ± 10 per cent was claimed for estimates based on these figures. Are they really that good? How about some of you men in the field writing M&M about it?

Jan 1, 1943

By Allan J. Clark

It may be said that the history of gold in the Black Hills begins with one of South Dakota's most. interesting relics, the so-called Thoen Stone, now in the Adams Memorial Hall at Deadwood. This slab of reddish sandstone, about 14 in. square, was found in by Louis and Ivan Thoen, at the base of Lookout Mountain, near Spearfish, a town in the northern foothills of the Black Hills uplift. Both sides of the stone bear clearly legible inscriptions. One side reads: Came to these hills in 1833. Seven of us, De Lacompt, Ezra Kind, G. W. Wood, T. Brown, R. Kent, Wm. King, Indian Crow. All ded but me, Ezra Kind. Killed by Indians beyond the high hills. Got our gold June 1834. On the reverse side: Got all the gold we could carry. Our ponys all got by the Indians. I hav lost iny gun and nothing to eat, and Indians hunting me. Attempts were made to trace these men. Relatives of Brown were found in Missouri, and it was learned that he had left for the West in 1832, with one Kent. Kind's relatives were also found, and stated that he had started West the same year. None of them had been heard from since their departure. So Kind failed to get out with "all the gold we could carry"; 15 years later California became the center of the first great gold rush, and the Hills waited 40 years for their gold to be rediscovered. It is interesting to speculate on what might have been "the course of Empire" had this little group won through. The history of Dakota, of Montana, indeed, of all the Northwest, might have been very different. When, late in 1875, the goldseekers arrived, they passed quickly northward from the first discovery near Custer, and soon were established on Deadwood Creek, along which, as well as for short distances above the mouths of its tributary streams, Blacktail and Bobtail, placer operations went forward vigorously. These placers were near the northern outcrop of the Homestake ore-body. Their gold was partly derived from this, perhaps in greater quantity from the erosion of the conglomerate or cement deposits, of Potsdam time, themselves a "fossil placer" or beach deposit formed by

Jan 1, 1935

By Caner Zanbak, Erdogan Yüzer, Mahir Vardar, Kemal A. Erguvanli

The Hasancelebi iron deposit in Eastern Turkey is a very low grade (average 20% oxide) magnetite body consisting of 720 million longtons of proven reserve at a 10% cut-off limit. The ore-bearing scapolitic oclcs cover an area of approximately 4300m x 300m, and the thickness of the outcropping deposit exceeds 300m. Prefeasibility project studies revealed that a one degree decrease in a 45° final slope angle of the proposed pit would require excavation of approximately 10 million cubic meters of excess waste material, for a projected pit bottom 300 meters below the valley floor. There- fore, determination of the final slope angles of the open pit was considered to be the most important task in the feasibility analysis of this project. In this investigation, the main emphasis was given to collection, compilation and evaluation of the engineering geological, hydrogeological and rock mechanics data of the highly fractured and weathered rocks. Due to the presence of intense fracturing, the rock wedge analysis method was used for projected 30m-high benches and the circular failure analysis method was used for the stability of the projected final pit slopes. The proposed bench slope angles ranged between 60° and 80°, whereas the projected final slope angles varied between 30° and 48°, depending on the slope heights and groundwater levels.

Jan 1, 1983

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Jan 1, 1938

So commonplace that they are seldom noticed, mining-machine bits have a defi-nite and important bearing on the cost of coal production. At the average mine many thousands of bits are used during the year. The actual cost represented by the pur-chase of the bits used, as well as that of sharpening and handling them, represents a considerable sum of money. From the point of view of indirect costs they are im-portant, as the lack of good bits at a mining machine can seriously impair production. Good bits tend to ensure an adequate supply of coal.

Jan 1, 1940

By Glenn Allen

SAN FRANCISCO Mines of Mexico, Ltd. owns and operates an extensive group of claims in the San Francisco del Oro-Santa Barbara district, about 15 miles southwest of Parral, Chihuahua. The property comprises the mines, aerial tramways, flotation mill, power plant, shops, offices, assay and testing laboratories, modern hospital, water and sanitary system, quarters for miners, mechanics and operators, a well housed colony for Mexican staff employees and residences for foreigners. Each colony has a club house and mess and tennis courts. The employees have constructed a nine-hole golf course. In other words, the property is self-contained and completely integrated for production of lead and zinc concentrates from complex sulfide ores.

Jan 1, 1930

By Raja P. Upadhyay

An evaluation of the economics of mining the deep, thick oil shale deposits of the central portion of the Piceance Creek basin, Colorado, U.S.A. is presented in this paper. For the analysis, a modified large scale underground mining system developed by Cameron Engineers, Inc. and the Gas Combustion retorting process developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines were used to determine capital investment and annual operating costs. A modified risk analysis computer program was then used to calculate DCFROI’s for various grades of oil shale and selling prices of partially refined shale oil. Sensitivity analyses were performed to quantify the affect of bonus bid payments, operating costs, capital investment, and all costs on DCFROI. In addition, a probabilistic evaluation was made to determine the risk involved in obtaining desired rates of return. Results of the economic evaluation indicate that for current selling prices of crude oil a high risk is involved in obtaining a DCFROI of 15%, unless only higher grades of oil shale are mined. However, mining only the higher grade oil shales, 125 l/mt (30 gpt) and above, would effectively reduce the potentially mineable resources by 90%. Risk can also be reduced through higher selling prices of shale oil. Sensitivity analyses indicate that the capital investment has a three times greater effect on required selling price than total operating costs.

Jan 1, 1977