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By H. E. Rorschach

Activity in Oklahoma oil fields made 1937 one of the best years since 1926. During the year, 3454 wells were completed, an increase of about 25 per cent over the year 1936. Purchasers reports filed with the Corporation Commission of the State of Oklahoma showed a total of 221,842,-788 bbl. of oil purchased from leases in 1937, an increase of about 10 per cent over 1936. The assembly of a complete table of all of the oil fields in Oklahoma has not yet been achieved. Many of the early records of operators and pipe-line companies are incomplete. Table 1 includes all of the new fields, and this year there has been added work done covering pools discovered in previous years, so that most of the important fields in the state of Oklahoma are included therein. The outstanding development of the year was the discovery of the producing horizon classified as the Wilcox in western Payne County by the Mid-Continent Petroleum Corporation on a unitized block in sec. 18, Tp. 18 N., R. 2 E. This block is operated hy the Mid-Continent and owned in conjunction with the Carter Oil Co., Transwestern Oil Co. and Sinclair-Prairie Oil Co. Another important development of the year was the extension of the deep zone in the old Fox-Milroy area of Carter and Stephens Counties. Some of the other discoveries made during the year 1937 are South Cromwell, discovered by Sinclair-Prairie Oil Co.; Cromwell extension of the Fitts pool in Pontotoc County; discovery of the Langston area in Logan County; discovery of the Sporn area in Lincoln County by Skelly Oil Co. and the discovery of the North Wellston area in Lincoln County by Standard Oil & Gas Co. Table 2 shows the new oil areas discovered in Oklahoma during the year 1937 and areas that were discovered in 1936 but developed in 1937. Fox-Milroy Area.—Three wells were completed to the deep producing zone during the year. One of the wells completed in the early part of the year uas the Carter Oil Company's No. 1 Harley in sec. 24, Tp. 2 S., R. 4 W., 3 1/2 miles northwest of the original discovery well, the Ruth

Jan 1, 1938

Iron Ores and Blast Furnace Practice Concentration of Iron Ores in the United States. By T. R. Counselman. (Metals Technolog), December 1943) Selection of Blast-furnace Refractories. By Hobart M. KrANer and E. B. Snyder. (Metals Technology, April 1944) The Washing of Pittsburgh Coking Coals and Results Obtained on Blast Furnaces. By C. 1). King. (Metals Technology, September 1943) Steelmaking The Role of Basic Slags in the Elimination of Phosphorus from Steel. By Richard L. BArrett and William J. McCaughey. (Metals Technology, April 1944) The Relative Deoxidizing Power of Boron In Liquid Steel and the Elimination of Boron in the Open-hearth Process. By B. W. Gurry. (Metals 'Technology, December 1943) Manufacture and Properties of Killed Bessemer Steel. By C. C. Wright. (Metals Technology, June 1944) Hardenability Effect of Sixteen Alloying Elements on Hardenability of Steel. By Irvin R. Kramer, Robert Hafner and Stewart L. Toleman. (Metals Technology, September 1943) Effect of Quenching Temperature on the Results of the End-quench Hardenability Test. By Clarence E. Jackson and Arthur L. Chrjstenson. (Metals Technology, December 1943) Effect of Some Elements on Hardenability. By Walter Crafts and John L. Lamont. (Metals Technology, January 1944) Effect of Several Variables on the Hardenability of High-carbon Steels. By I?. S. Rowland, J. Welchner and R. IS. Marshall. (Metals Technology, January 1944) Mechanical Properties Influence of Hydrogen on Mechanical Properties of Some Low-carbon Manganese-iron Alloys and on Hadfield Manganese Steel. By Herbert H. Uhlig. (Metals Technology, June 1944) Aging and the Yield Point in Steel. By J. R. LOW, Jr., and 14. Gensamer. (Metals Technology, December 1943) Tensile Properties of Medium-carbon Low-alloy Cast Steels. By H. A. Schwartz and W. Kenneth Bock. (Metals Technology, August 1944) Variables Affecting the Results of Notched-bar 1mpct Tests on Steels. By CLarence 15. Jackson, MYRon A. Pugancz and Frank S. McKenna. (Metals Technology, August 1944) The Notched-bar Lmpact Test. By John H. Hollomon. (Meta1s Technology, April 1944) Hardness Measurement as a Rapid Means for Determining Carbon Content of Carhon and Low- alloy Steels. By K. L. Clark and NIcHols Kowall. (Metals Technology, January 1944)

Jan 1, 1944

Iron Ores and Blast Furnace Practice Concentration of Iron Ores in the United States. By T. R. Counselman. (Metals Technolog), December 1943) Selection of Blast-furnace Refractories. By Hobart M. KrANer and E. B. Snyder. (Metals Technology, April 1944) The Washing of Pittsburgh Coking Coals and Results Obtained on Blast Furnaces. By C. 1). King. (Metals Technology, September 1943) Steelmaking The Role of Basic Slags in the Elimination of Phosphorus from Steel. By Richard L. BArrett and William J. McCaughey. (Metals Technology, April 1944) The Relative Deoxidizing Power of Boron In Liquid Steel and the Elimination of Boron in the Open-hearth Process. By B. W. Gurry. (Metals 'Technology, December 1943) Manufacture and Properties of Killed Bessemer Steel. By C. C. Wright. (Metals Technology, June 1944) Hardenability Effect of Sixteen Alloying Elements on Hardenability of Steel. By Irvin R. Kramer, Robert Hafner and Stewart L. Toleman. (Metals Technology, September 1943) Effect of Quenching Temperature on the Results of the End-quench Hardenability Test. By Clarence E. Jackson and Arthur L. Chrjstenson. (Metals Technology, December 1943) Effect of Some Elements on Hardenability. By Walter Crafts and John L. Lamont. (Metals Technology, January 1944) Effect of Several Variables on the Hardenability of High-carbon Steels. By I?. S. Rowland, J. Welchner and R. IS. Marshall. (Metals Technology, January 1944) Mechanical Properties Influence of Hydrogen on Mechanical Properties of Some Low-carbon Manganese-iron Alloys and on Hadfield Manganese Steel. By Herbert H. Uhlig. (Metals Technology, June 1944) Aging and the Yield Point in Steel. By J. R. LOW, Jr., and 14. Gensamer. (Metals Technology, December 1943) Tensile Properties of Medium-carbon Low-alloy Cast Steels. By H. A. Schwartz and W. Kenneth Bock. (Metals Technology, August 1944) Variables Affecting the Results of Notched-bar 1mpct Tests on Steels. By CLarence 15. Jackson, MYRon A. Pugancz and Frank S. McKenna. (Metals Technology, August 1944) The Notched-bar Lmpact Test. By John H. Hollomon. (Meta1s Technology, April 1944) Hardness Measurement as a Rapid Means for Determining Carbon Content of Carhon and Low- alloy Steels. By K. L. Clark and NIcHols Kowall. (Metals Technology, January 1944)

Jan 1, 1944

By M. E. Straumanis, S. M. Riad

The lattice parameter of 99.999 pct pure Ag rtlas redetevnzined and found to be az5 = 4.08626 5 0.000041 with the vefnzctiotz correction included); the expatzsion coejjicient between 10° and 65°C was 18.73 X10-6°C-1. The lattice paratneter increased upon solution indium in silver in good agrement with other authors. The solid-solubility limit around room temperature was at 20.4 wt pct of in, which suggests that the high-temperature solubility (at about 689°C) determined by other authors is too low. The expansion coejficient of si1ver increases with the itzcrease of indium content between 10° and 65° C from, 18.73 (In = 0) to 20.9 x 10-6°C-1 (In = 20.4 pct), being only very slightly influenced by small amounts of indium. The expansion coefficents of all solid solutions increarsed strongly with temperature, reaching values > 27 x 10- 6 800°C. ACCORDING to the Ag-In diagram,' the solubility of indium in silver (the a phase) extends to about 18 pct by weight at room temperature. However, there has been only one investigation of the solubility limit by X-ray methods—that of Weibke and Eggers.2 Hume-Rothery, Lewin, and Reynolds measured only the lattice parameters of Ag-In solid solutions3 as did Owen and Roberts4 and Adler and Wagner.' The thermal expansivity of four solid solutions was determined by Owen and Roberts4 in a temperature range between 25" and 300°C. In view of the limited amount of work on Ag-In solid solutions, it seemed appropriate to redeter-mine the lattice parameters and the room-temperature solid-solubility limit, to find the exact expansion coefficients of the solid solutions at about room temperature (between 10° and 60°C) and the expansivity up to 800°C, and finally to derive the thermal-expansion coefficients for any alloy within the solid-solubility region. THE ALLOYS AND THE DETERMINATION OF LATTICE CONSTANTS The metals used were 99.9991 pet pure, supplied by the ASARCO company. Both silver and indium were weighed accurately on an analytical balance in

Jan 1, 1965

By C. Laird, C. E. Feltner

IN previous workif2 we have shown that the steady state cyclic stress response of pure copper tested in the low cycle fatigue range was determined only by the plastic strain amplitude and the test temperature. hus, copper, at any given temperature, has a unique cyclic stress-strain curve independent of prior history. Cu-7.5 wt pct Al, however, showed a stress response for a given plastic strain amplitude and temperature which depended sensitively on prior history. From this work we predicted that all wavy slip mode materials, typified by copper, would have a unique cyclic stress-strain curve; whereas all planar slip mode materials, typified by Cu-7.5 pct Al, would not. This prediction has now been tested for a number of materials of widely varying crystal structure and slip character. Wavy slip mode materials studied include: Fe. Al, Cd, disordered FeCo-V, and Cu-3 pct Co (quenched and aged). Planar slip mode materials investigated include: Fe-3 pct Si, ordered FeCo-V, disordered Ni3Mn, ordered Ni3Mn, and Zn. The treatment and properties of these materials are listed in Table I. Cyclic stress-strain curves were determined by controlled plastic strain tests (see Ref. 1 for details) at room temperature for all materials in both the initially annealed and cold worked conditions. The results obtained for iron and Fe-3 pct Si are typical of wavy and planar slip mode materials, respectively. The cyclic stress-strain curves for these materials are shown in Fig. 1 and it can be seen that iron has a unique cyclic stress strain curve while Fe-3 pct Si does not. Aluminum, Cu-3 pct Co, and disordered FeCo-V showed a behavior like that for iron, while Ni3Mn in both the disordered and ordered condition behaved in the same manner as Fe-3 pct Si. These results therefore support the general conclusion drawn in Refs. 1 and 2 that. for wavy slip mode materials, a cyclic mechanical equation of slate it =t.(hcp, i. T) is approximated in which the satura-

Jan 1, 1970

By Attilio Ligasacchi

The production of magnetite in copper smelting has been the subject of wide investigation in the past.1-9 It is accepted that most of the magnetite is produced in the converters and returned to the re-verberatory furnace with the converter slag. Part of this magnetite is circulated back to the converters in the matte. As a result, if proper fluxing practice is not followed, and temperatures in the converting process are not strictly controlled, an undesirable circulating load of magnetite may occur. This might ultimately lead to saturation in the reverberatory bath with consequent settling of the magnetite at the furnace bottom. This paper contains the cumulative results of a series of investigations on the formation and control of magnetite presently being conducted by the metallurgical department of the Chino Mines Division of Kennecott Copper Corp. THE METHOD USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MAGNETITE AND OTHER MAGNETIC MATERIALS Conventional wet chemical magnetite analyses are neither reproducible nor theoretically sound. These analyses are sensitive to time, temperature, and heating rate-all factors which tend to decrease their accuracy and reproducibility. To overcome the unreliability of the above method, H. W. Mossman1 developed an inductance bridge magnetite "meter" which completely replaces the wet chemical analysis with the advantage of quicker and reproducible results. Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram of the meter in use in the Chino metallurgical laboratory. When a pulverized specimen with magnetic properties is placed in coil A of the inductance bridge circuit, the permeability of the core is increased, causing a voltage drop across the coil. The unbalance is amplified to operate the balancing motor which adjusts the movable iron core in coils C and D to bring the bridge back to balance. An indicator arm connected to the movable iron core indicates directly the percent, or weight, of the magnetic material in the specimen. Coil B acts as a reference coil and a zero adjustment. The meter is standardized with a set of various amounts of -100 mesh pure magnetite crystals (99.8 pet Fe3O4) thoroughly mixed in a test tube with -100 mesh quartz sand. These mixtures are combined with inert transoptic powder and heated to 140° to 160°C (melting point of the powder) and subsequently cooled to room temperature, solidifying the whole mixture, in this manner eliminating any possible preferential orientation of the magnetite grains. In order to determine the effect of the particle size" of the magnetite and other magnetic materials on the meter determinations, five size fractions were obtained by wet screening of the 99.8 pet pure magnetite and several reverberatory matte and slag samples. The following size fractions were investigated: -80 + 100; -100 + 150; -150 + 180; -200 + 250; -250 + 300 and -100 mesh. The deviation of the meter readings for the various sizes of each sample never exceeded ±0.3 pet. This deviation is considered well within the accuracy needed for common smelter operation procedures. Further investigation proved also that grinding slag and matte samples in our laboratory disc grinder normally produced a powder constituted of 95 pet -200 + 300 mesh. For practical purposes a - 100 mesh size was used as standard for our studies. It was also found that for rapid determinations tamping of the sample in the test tube was sufficient and gave comparable results with those samples solidified with transoptic powder. For the purpose of this study we define the magnetite content in copper smelter slags and matte as the equilibrium amount of crystalline Fe3O4 existent in the specimen at a given reference temperature, excluding any secondary magnetite precipitated in the specimen during nonequilibrium conditions. MAGNETITE DETERMINATION IN SLAGS Since it is impossible to ascertain the status of equilibrium of a conventional slag sample, due to

Jan 1, 1965

By C. Wachmann

The theory presented ill this paper makes possible examination of the phenomenological aspect of secondary oil recovery by alcohol flooding. Limitutions of the theory are contingent on three primary assumptions: (1) chemical equilibrium, (2) no fingering, and (5) no dispersion. The second assumption implies one-dimensional flow. In a geometric sense the theory extends the Buckley-Leverett construction to systems of two slightly miscible fluids and to systems of three components. This is made possible by considering single-phase fluids to be made up two phases, namely of an excess of one phase and a negative amount of the other phase. The procedure is discussed in the paper. The theory also permits direct determination of the relationship between the aqueous phase saturation and the concentration of water in the aqueous phase in a zone of variable composition. The velocity of planes of constant water concentration and of constant saturation can be computted likewise and the existence of saturation discontinuities inferred. Consequently the behavior of such a Zone, which may exist at some time between a displaced and a displacing fluid, May be determined. mathematical details are given in Appendices. Problems of experimental verification are pointed out on the basis of a supporting experiment. Implications of the theory and effects of violations of primary assumptions are discussed briefly. The major conclusion is that, if the primary assumptions are met, with pure alcohol and alcohol-rich .slugs piston-like displacement of oil and water is possible. INTRODUCTION The recovery of oil from porous media by alcohol displacement has been studied for several years. Extensive experimental investigations into alcohol flooding have been carried out in the laboratory although little has been done in the field. A large amount of practical information is available, the extent being indicated by the first three papers cited 1-3 and their respecrive bibliographies. This has permitted the Formulation of inferential theories. A more analytical approach in which theories are developed primarily by reasoning from known physical principles and relationships has, however, lagged behind. In fact, an analytically derived theory of alcohol displacement has not been available. The theory presented in this paper on oil and water displacement by alcohol from a porous medium is a result of the analytical approach. The theory is idealized, as certain assumptions had to be made to make the mathematics tractable and reduce complexity of argument. In particular, major assuptions concerning conditions of equilibrium, interfacial stability, longitudinal mixing, etc., led to the exclusion of fingering, for example, from all considerations. In many laboratory experiments reported in the literature fingering could not be avoided. There is, therefore, disagreement between theories based on experimental evidence available and the analytically derived theory presented here. This theory presented is based on known physical data and makes use of the Buckley-Leverett construction and its suggested extension. The mathematical derivation of the theory is given in Appendices. Three examples relevant to alcohol displacement are discussed to explain the use of this theory: (1) system of two immiscible fluids (the Buckley-Leverett case); (2) system of two slightly miscible fluids involving an extension of the Buckley-Leverett construction; and (3) system of three components, including injection of pure alcohol or alcohol-rich fluid as a special case, which involves a more general extension of the Buckley-Leverett construction. In these discussions strict assumptions were made to impose equilibrium conditions and exclude mixing and fingering. Effects of relaxing these assumptions and consequent extensions of the theory are indicated. The complexity of the alcohol displacement process makes experimental verification of the theory essential. Some relevant evidence is offered in this paper.

Jan 1, 1965

By C. B. Scotty, E. F. Egan

INTRODUCTION The neutron-garnma log has been used for stratigraphic correlation by the oil industry for a number of years. In the past few years, the quantitative application of the log to provide information with respect to porosity has received considerable attention. The basic concept of quantitative interpretation has been pointed out in the literature.1 It shall be the purpose of this paper to develop by empirical means a method whereby the relationship of porosity to neu. tron-gamma deflection may be predicted for various bore hole diameters. This relationship is applicable to the present commercially available neutron-gamma log run in open hole. Data available at present are insufficient to establish similar correlations for cased holes. Through the development of such a correlation, the importance of the various factors which influence the log become evident. NEUTRON-GAMMA CURVE The logging tool conisists of a source of neutrons and a means of detecting and measuring gamma rays, the detector being shielded from the direct emission from the source. The gamma rays reaching the detector have three sources of origin: (1) the natural gamma radiation emitted by the formations, (211 induced gamma radiation resulting from neutron bombardment. (3) gamma rays emitted by the source and scattered by the formation. It has been found that a neutron derived porosity correlation is best for shale-free formations. Under this condition the natural gamma ray radiation is quite low, and therefore, will be neglected in this work. The induced gamma ray radiation resulting from neutron bombardment is predominantly a function of the hydrogen atom concentration of the substance penetrated. Due to the geometry of the presently used system, the neutron-gamma curve indicates low radioactivity opposite high hydrogen concentration and high radioactivity opposite low hydrogen concentration (Figs. 1 and 2). Having a curve which measures hydrogen atom concentration, it follows that if the matrix of the formation penetrated consists only of atoms other than hydrogen, and if the fluid filling the pores is either oil or water, the curve should be an indication of porosity (both oil and water have practically the same number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume'). The above criteria for a porosity (Correlation are fulfilled in clean sandztones and limestones in which the pore volume is completely filled with liquids (oil or water), but not in formations containing either free gas or shale or both. Free gas. even under pressure, contains considerably less hydrogen per unit volume than oil and water; therefore, a variation in response on the curve would be expected. Camp- bell and Winter,' indicate that this difference in hydrogen concentration is sufficient to distinguish between sands containing water or oil and those containing dry gas. Shale is a mineral that contains hydrogen in its molecular structure in addition to the hydrogen which is present in the water of hydration. Thus, in formations containing variable amounts of shale, the hydrogen concentration indicated by the curve is not a direct indication of porosity. Bush and Mardock' have indicated that a correction may be made by use of the gamma ray curve to provide a porosity correlation. Since the induced gamma rays are predominaiitly a function of hydrogen concentration, it would be anticipated that the fluid filled bore hole would materially influence the logs. It has been pointed out that the neutron-gamma curve response decreases with increase in hydrogen concentration, therefore, the response due to the induced gamma ray component decreases with increase in fluid filled hore hole diameter. The scattered gamma ray component of the log increases with increase in bore hole diameter. Although there is an

Jan 1, 1952

By A. S. Yue

Small-angle tilt boundaries have been observed in a lamellar eutectic structure. These boundaries are morphologically similar to a theoretical till boundary originally proposed by Burgers. The production of a small-angle tilt boundary in the lamellar eutectic structure is attributed to the formation of an indentation on a planar solid-liquid interface during growth. Constitutional supercooling due to the accumulation of impurity atoms ahead of the interface is primarily responsible for the generation of an indentation. The distance between two faults of like sign, designated as lamellar fault distance, is calculated by the Burgers equation for small-angle boundaries. It was found that the lamellar fault distance decreases exponentially and the tilt angle increases exponentially with freezing rate. SMALL-ANGLE tilt boundaries have been observed in many crystals in the as-grown states by etching techniques. However, a detailed substantial proof for revealing the presence of dislocations in the form of etch-pits was recently accomplished by Vogel. These boundaries are described as an array of dislocations of like sign. The angle of tilt associated with a boundary is treated theoretically by Burgers3 and is given by 0 = b/D for small tilt-angle where b is the Burgers vector of the dislocations and D is their average spacing. During the course of experimentation on the solidi fication of the lamellar Mg-32 wt pct Al eutectic a microstructure which was strikingly similar to a dislocation tilt boundary was observed. An example of the type of microstructure is given in Fig. 1, which shows a combination of transverse and top sections of the lamellar eutectic structure. The lamellae of the top section on one side of the apparent tilt angle are not parallel with those on the other side. Consequently, some lamellae must be terminated somewhere. Fig. 1 shows that the termination of lamellae is analogous to a dislocation tilt boundary in a crystal lattice originally proposed by Burgers. This work represents a closer look at such structures. The factors governing the production of the small-angle tilt boundary are discussed in terms of the freezing condition and impurity distribution in the melt. The effect of freezing rate on the distance between two faults, designated as lamellar fault distance, and the tilt angle is also described. In addition, the lamellar fault distance is determined by means of the Burgers equation for small-angle tilt boundary. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The slightly impure Mg-32 wt pct Al eutectic rods, 5/8 in. in diam and 12 in. long, were made from 99.99 wt pct Al and 99.98 wt pct Mg and were cast in a high-purity graphite mold. Some of these rods were purified by zone-refining the eutectic using direct-radiation helical-coil furnaces5 A molten zone about 2 in. long was passed through the cast rods at a speed of 5.3 x 104 cm per sec for ten passes of the molten zone. Before the freezing experiment was begun, 2-1/2 in. of the material from the head and tail ends of the zone-refined eutectic were removed from the rod to eliminate any impurity. The freezing experiments were carried out under controlled conditions,8 using a protective atmosphere of purified argon. At the end of each run, observation of the tilt boundary was made throughout the entire length of the rod with a light microscope on the top, longitudinal, and transverse sections (three mutually perpendicular sections) of the lamellar eutectic solid. The experimental data used for the determination of interlamellar spacing and tilt angle were taken from the middle portion of

Jan 1, 1964

By C. Gatlin, C. E. Nemir

A common cure of lost circulation is the introduction of granular bridging agents into the mud system. Many materials, such as ground nut shells, are used for this purpose. If the trouble causing void (fracture, fissure, vug, etc.) is not too large, the granular agent forms a "bridge" across or within the opening. Successively smaller particles in the mud stream then accumulate on and/or within this bridge until normal filtration is finally established. The efficiency of many bridging agents has been studied in the laboratory using various slot testers.',' Many investigators have remarked that a granular bridging material should have the proper particle size distribution. With the exception of the broad range specified in the patent of Goins and Nash,3 here is apparently no definition as to what this distribution should be. A bridge may be initiated when several particles of lost circulation material lodge against each other in a fracture or other void. Smaller particles then may bridge the openings between the larger, previously bridged particles. This process continues until the voids become quite small and the problem becomes one of filtration. It would seem logical that an optimum particle size distribution exists, i.e., one containing the proper quantity of properly sized material to fill the successively smaller voids of the bridge. The filtration characteristics of drilling fluids may be subject to a similar analysis. It has been clearly demonstrated by many workers that the filtration behavior of various muds can be altered by particle size control.'.' Slusser, et al, divided filtration into three periods and showed that particle sizes affecting a given period did not necessarily affect other portions of the filtration curve. An analagous problem is the proper sizing of gravel, liner slots and screen sizes in various sand-exclusion problems. Here the situation is reversed in that a proper "void" size, rather than the size of the bridging agent, is sought. The classic work of Coberly 9 forms the quantitative basis for most sand-exclusion processes. It is interesting to note that, in general, Coberly's work has been overlooked by most drilling-mud researchers. Other investigators have made various studies of the effect of particle size distribution .on drilling-mud properties. As a part of their studies, Fancher and Oliphant reported 30-minute filtration loss of a variety of mixtures of particle sizes.'' Gates and Bowie noted an effect of particle size distribution on filtration, as well as on other physical properties.' MAXIMUM DENSITY THEORY A maximum density mixture has been mentioned as the possible solution for both lost circulation and mud filtration problems. Furnas 12 derived mathematically a method for obtaining maximum density of beds of packed solids, having either a given number of component sizes or a continuous gradation of sizes. This work was verified experimentally by Anderegg.13 or mixtures having a continuous grading of sizes, the interval between sizes is taken as successive screen sizes of interval 2 The ratio of the quantity of each size and the next smaller size is given by the equation Fig. I, number of size intervals of ratio 2 taken from Furnas' paper, gives the value of n + 1 for any given values of + and K, where K is the ratio of the diameter of the smallest particles to the diameter of the largest particles. Measurement by weight assumes, of course, constant density for all particle sizes. Choosing the quantity of the smallest particle size as a unit weight, the required weights of the successively larger interials are then r1 r2 r3 . ®1,2,3. Thus, the grading curve of a maximum density mixture represents a geometric pro gression of ratio r.

By W. C. Ellis

IN an ingot of germanium solidified progressively from the bottom by a method' devised by J. H. Scaff and H. C. Theuerer, examination discloses ex- IH. C. Torrey and C. A. Whitmer, Crystal Rectifiers. p. 364. 1948. New York. McGraw-Hill Pub. Co. tensive twin relationships. A slice taken about midway in a cylindrical ingot approximately 3/4 in. in diameter and 1 1/2 in. in length, after etching and polishing to delineate different orientations, is shown in fig. la. The orientations of the regions designated with letters were determined by Laue X-ray back-reflection methods and plotted on stereograms. The orientation relationships of the designated components were determined by comparing the values for the nine angles between the three respective cube poles of each orientation with the values calculated in a formal treatment of octahedral multiple twinning in cubic crystals. Germanium, diamond cubic in structure, has the octahedral twinning habit. I am indebted to K. H. Storks for the calculation of the angular relationships of cube poles in octahedral twinning to four orders. The set of values for the nine angles is distinctive of the order of twinning. Confirmation for a multiple twin relationship is obtained from the determined indices of the mirror planes. These exist for all orders of twinning through the third and for some of the fourth." If the orientations are not those for twinning, then the nine angles for the cube poles do not correspond in value and distribution to those formally calculated. Since all nine angles must correspond in values and distribution of values to the calculated ones, the Laue method with a precision of one or two degrees is adequate to establish or deny with confidence the existence of multiple twins. Regions of the same orientation can also frequently be identified by the optical reflections. For example, the narrow twin bands in A at 2: 00 o'clock have orientation B1. The interesting twin relationships shown schematically in fig. lb were found for the section in fig. la. Most of this slice was made up of orientation, A, appearing in widely separated regions. Of the four possible first order twins of A, three were present in this slice and are designated by B with subscripts. Four second order twins of A are designated by C with subscripts. It is worth emphasizing that two of these, C, and C,, are second orders of A through the first order missing in this section. Two regions, designated by D with subscripts are third order twins of A. D2 is a sixth order twin of D,. All orientations found were ascribable to multiple twinning, as if the orientations in this section originated earlier in solidification from a single nucleus. The presence of extensive multiple twinning to- gether with the absence of other orientations appears to be a characteristic result in many instances of solidification of germanium. Fertile conditions for twinning probably exist in the array of atoms in the diamond cubic structure. The high order twins in the section shown, it is reasonable to presume, are the result of progressive octahedral twinning through several generations in the material freezing earlier. Some of these generations do not appear in this section, it is suggested, because their orientations with respect to the growth direction were unfavorable for survival. The extensive twinning is probably promoted during solidification by constraint imposed by volume increase, and to an irregular growth front. Twinning may also be due, in part, to the attempt of the solidifying region to attain the orientation most favorable to the growth direction (maximum thermal gradient). The nucleus for a twinned orientation could have its origin in a "stacking fault" on the close-packed octahedral plane. Further work is being done in which the course of twinning throughout an ingot is being studied. The results appear to be important in the general theory of solidification.

Jan 1, 1951

By Harry R. Hall

THE proposition to make pig-iron from magnetic concentrates and cobbed ore with charcoal-fuel weighing from 12 to 20 lb. per bushel is, on the face of it, not inviting; but the successful work that has been done under these adverse conditions warrants a permanent record in our Transactions, especially as it furnishes a comparison with, coke blast-furnace practice under similar conditions. The record of the furnace-practice is briefly summarized as follows:-The charcoal was made of hemlock, pine, spruce, balsam, maple, beech and birch woods. All the concentrates containing from 62 to 65 per cent. of iron would pass in. screen, of which about 34 per cent.. would pass an 80-mesh sieve. The cobbed ore, varying in composition from 32 to 47 per cent. metallic iron and from 23 to 32 per cent. of. silica, would pass through a I-in. ring, of which about 25 per cent. would pass a 1/8 in. screen. The furnace was blown in October 20,1903, with charcoal which was supposed to weigh when dry 18 lb. to the bushel. Some charcoal similar to this was stored in the stock-house for about a year and was then found to weigh 12 lb. per bushel. During the first 10 days of the blast, the furnace produced 362 tons of pig-iron, using 200 bushels of charcoal per ton of iron. From November 1st to 12th, the volume of the blast was increased gradually from 2,808 to 5,460 cu. ft. per minute, with practically no increase of output. The silicon-content of the resultant pig-iron averaged 0.75 per cent., with sulphur about 0.035 per cent. A supply of freshly-burned dry charcoal was then used which increased the silicon-content and lowered

Sep 1, 1905

By F. W. Bryan, D. H. Lynch

Introduction This paper is a general description of current central Florida phosphate mining, beneficiation, and product transportation. It is directed and believed to be of interest to engineers not familiar with this industry. Deposit: The phosphate deposits of central Florida are generally located in a five county area which includes Polk, Hillsborough, Hardee, Manatee, and DeSota counties. Geologically, the deposit is of marine origin and is identified as the Bone Valley formation. This formation is Pliocene to Recent in geological age and overlies a Miocene limestone formation known as the Hawthorn. The Bone Valley formation sediments are regionally characterized by equal proportions of apatite, quartz, and clay. The clay is predominantly of the mont-morillonite family. On a local scale, however, the proportions of these three major constituents vary considerably. The phosphate occurs as the apatite mineral (Ca 10F2(PO4)(6) and with the clay and sand, the minable ore is commonly referred to as matrix. This matrix is overlain by unconsolidated overburden of sand and sandy clays, ranging in depth from 10 to 45 ft. The matrix usually occurs in fairly horizontal continuous beds from 3 to 25 ft in thickness. The bedded limestone formation lies directly below the matrix and is generally well defined. The phosphate particles range from 3/4 in. to 200 mesh (Tyler) in size. The phosphate particles coarser than 14 mesh are called pebble phosphate and those less than 14 mesh are termed flotation feed which, when beneficiated, subsequently become concentrates. Through mining and beneficiation, phosphate quality is measured in BPL percent which stands for bone phosphate of lime units. In subsequent chemical manufacturing, the quality is indicated by P205 content. The deposit is economically characterized by various ratios such as tons of product per acre and cubic yards handled per ton of product. Magnesium, iron, and aluminum content are also considered in evaluating ore reserves. These elements are often critical to the chemical fertilizer processes. Presently, an ore body is considered economically minable if it meets the criteria shown in [Table 1]. These, of course, are general guidelines and specific costs and returns on investment must be considered in each case for acquiring reserves. On a new grass-root venture, a 20-30 year life is generally expected with a mineral recovery of 80%. History and Uses Phosphate mining in central Florida began around the turn of the century. However, in the early days, only pebble phosphate was produced until about 1930 when technology was available to beneficiate the -14 + 150 mesh particles. The -150 or -200 mesh material was discarded as it is today. The basic processes for beneficiation are washing, scrubbing, desliming, sizing, and flotation. These basic unit processes are essentially the same today although many improvements have been developed since the early days. Phosphate is used primarily in the production of high analysis fertilizer chemicals, typical of which are triple superphosphate, monoammonium phosphate (MAP), and diammonium phosphate (DAP). Phosphate is also used in the production of food preservatives, dyes for cloths, vitamin and mineral capsules, steel hardeners, gasoline and oil additives, toothpaste, shaving creams and soaps, bone china dishes, plastics, optical glass, photographic films, light filaments, water softeners, insecticides, soft drinks, road fill, and livestock feed supplements. Florida produces over 80% of the nation's marketable phosphate rock and one-third of the world production, according to the US Bureau of Mines. This amounted to approximately 35 million tons in 1975. Exports of Florida phosphate rock were to such countries as Canada, Japan, West Germany, Italy, and India, with Canada and Japan being the major users. Almost 95 o of all outbound cargo shipped through the port of Tampa is phosphate rock or related products. Beneficiation Following is a description of Agrico's new Fort Green beneficiation plant which is typical of the newer large capacity plants being built in the field. Agrico's Fort Green mine was completed in 1975 and is located in the southwest corner of Polk County and is directly adjacent to Manatee, Hillsborough, and Hardee Counties. With some minor differences, Fort Green is typical of a modern central Florida plant. The rated capacity is 3,000,000 plus tons of product per year and this varies according to the richness of the ore being handled. A simplified flowsheet is presented in [Figs.1 and 2]. This plant is served by three draglines of the 40-cu-yd class. The phosphate beneficiation is usually divided into three major functional steps: (1) washing and screening to produce a pebble product and flotation feed, (2) feed preparation and (3) flotation to produce concentrates. The typical plant is similarly divided into these three functional areas. Washer: Briefly, the slurried matrix is pumped from two draglines simultaneously at a combined rate of about 20,000 gpm at 2000 tph (solids) to rotary trommel screens sized to make a 7/8-in. separation. ([See Fig. 1]-) The trommel oversize is sent to hammermills where it is crushed and returned to the trommel screens, or pumped to tailings if minor impurities (Fe203, A1203, MgO) are too high. The trommel undersize is pumped to 14 mesh stationary (static) flat screens. The flat screen over¬size is subjected to three stages of 14 mesh vibrating screening and two stages of log washing in order to produce a final pebble product. The pebble product (+ 14 mesh material) is conveyed by belt conveyor to a large on-ground storage pile. Pebble product is reclaimed through a tunnel and loading system below

Jan 1, 1980

By H. B. Pulsifer

.ABOut 1.5 varieties, or tnodifications, of the best rnagnesiurn available were prepared and subjected to etching tests, then examined for micro-structure. Of the 30-udd etching reagents that were tried, nearly half, mostly ammonium salts, etched the metal satisfactorily. The surfacing and etching of magnesium is shown to be a very simple and quick operation. The density and hardness of magnesium were determined. The most interesting new observations relate to the finding of the hexagonal etch figures, the crystal laminations, and the fact that the metal is plastic, cold, when restrained or quickly deformed. Under slowly applied pressule cold metal deforms slightly, then shears to fracture without plastic flow. The chief structural features of magnesium arc presented in two reduced photographs and 30 photomicrographs. Materials Tested There are only two sources in the United States from which new metal can be procured: the American Magnesium Corpn. and the Dow Chemical Co. No pronounced structural or property differences in the metals from these two companies were disclosed by the work of this investigation. The following materials were obtained from the manufacturers: 1. Massive crystals of distilled metal (American Magnesium Corpn.). 2. Rods of hot-extruded metal, ½-in. squares and 5/8-in. rounds (American Magnesium Corpn.). 3. Sheet magnesium, 0.005-in. thick (American Magnesium Corpn.). 4. Cast stick metal, 13/8-in. dia. (Dow Chemical Co.). 5. Magnesium-aluminum alloy, hot-rolled plate, ½-in. thick (American Magnesium Corpn.). From these materials, were prepared: 6. Sections from a furnace-cooled ingot made from clistilled crystal. 7. Cold-strained pieces from (6), (4) and (2). 8. Pieces cold-squeezed to fracture from (6), (4) and (2). 9. Hammer-struck pieces from (6), (4) and (2). 10. Steam-hammer struck pieces from (6), (4) and (2). 11. Sections from furnace-cooled ingot of the magnesium-aluminum alloy.

By C. Schlumberger

SINCE the beginning of .the year 1928 the senior authors and their associates have applied a series of procedures which makes possible the detailed study in situ of the formations traversed by a drill hole before the casing has been landed. They have given the name "electrical coring" to the ensemble of these processes, which now replace in a large measure the mechanical coring performed by the drillers, and permit the gathering of bottom-hole data hitherto unobtainable. Three years have elapsed since the technique and interpretation of these measurements emerged from the experimental stage and entered the field of industrial application on a large scale. The total length of drill holes so far surveyed by the authors and their associates, all over the world, amounts to several millions of feet. Practical and strongly built equipment has been evolved, which permits the examination in a short time of an open hole several thousand feet long. No comprehensive paper has yet been published discussing the essential principles of the processes applied and bringing into evidence their economic interest. This is the object of the present paper.1 Numerous examples of field work performed under varied geological conditions are given, constituting a concrete illustration of the services rendered by the new methods. The study in situ of the formations penetrated by a drill hole is based on the measurement of a given physical factor or parameter associated with these formations. Generally. the measurements are made syste-matically along the whole length of the open hole. The physical factors or parameters which are now utilized by us to this end are: (1) the resistivities of the rocks; (2) their porosity; (3) their electrical anisotropy; (4) their temperature; (5) the resistivity of the muds. In order to

Jan 1, 1932

By W. D. Keller

THE high-alumina clays of Missouri are interesting for several reasons. They are the only sedimentary deposits in North America of first grade (over 70 pct A1,0,) diaspore and boehmite sufficiently large to be mined commercially. Mineralogically, they are composed of diaspore and boehmite in intimate coexistence, but gibbsite, the common hydrated alumina mineral in bauxite and laterite, is absent, or is exceedingly scanty if present.* Therefore, the Missouri high-alumina clays do not represent typical laterization. The physical chemistry leading to their mineral genesis, and the geolbgical setting for their formation, present important problems for scientific study. The origin of the Missouri high-alumina clays has been discussed in earlier reports by Allen1 (1935) and McQueen 8, 9 (1929, 1943). These investigations were made under difficult conditions, however, because no diaspore deposit had been opened where a Paleozoic (Pennsylvanian) rock cover lay undisturbed over the high-alumina clay. The relationship of the clay to only the underlying rocks could actually be observed. Lacking the guidance of critical postdepositional geologic evidence, undue and erroneous emphasis was placed on the postdepositional leaching of the deposits in the theories on the origin of diaspore and boehmite from clay (hydrous aluminosilicates) . With new geologic evidence at hand, a clearer picture can be made for the origin of the Missouri high-alumina deposits. In this paper the geology of a diaspore deposit whose original Paleozoic cover had not been eroded will be described and interpreted genetically. The close relationship of boehmite and diaspore (also with kaolinite and a chloritic mineral), will be established. A theory of origin for the high-alumina clays, consistent with the new data, will be postulated.

Jan 1, 1952

By H. B. Pulsifer

ABOUT 15 varieties, or modifications, of the best magnesium available were prepared and subjected to etching tests, then examined for microstructure. Of the 30-odd etching reagents that were tried, nearly half, mostly ammonium salts, etched the metal satisfactorily. The surfacing and etching of magnesium is shown to be a very simple and quick operation. The density and hardness of magnesium were determined. The most interesting new observations relate to the finding of the hexagonal etch figures, the crystal laminations, and the fact that the metal is plastic, cold, when restrained or quickly deformed. Under slowly applied pressure cold metal deforms slightly, then shears to fracture without plastic flow. The chief structural features of magnesium are presented in two reduced photographs and 30 photomicrographs. MATERIALS TESTED There are only two sources in the United States from which new metal can be procured: the American Magnesium Corpn. and the Dow Chemical Co. No pronounced structural or property differences in the metals from these two companies were disclosed by the work of this investigation. The following materials were obtained from the manufacturers: 1. Massive crystals of distilled metal (American Magnesium Corpn.). 2. Rods of hot-extruded metal, ½ -in. squares and 5/8-in. rounds (American Magnesium Corpn.). 3. Sheet magnesium, 0.005-in. thick (American Magnesium Corpn.). 4. Cast stick metal, 1 3/8-in. dia. (Dow Chemical Co.). 5. Magnesium-aluminum alloy, hot-rolled plate, ½ in. thick (American Magnesium Corpn.). From these materials, were prepared: 6. Sections from a furnace-cooled ingot made from distilled crystal. 7. Cold-strained pieces from (6), (4) and (2). 8. Pieces cold-squeezed to fracture from (6), (4) and (2). 9. Hammer-struck pieces from (6), (4) and (2). 10. Steam-hammer struck pieces from (6), (4) and (2). 11. Sections from furnace-cooled ingot of the magnesium-aluminum alloy.

Jan 1, 1928

By J. R. Long, E. T. Hayes, R. S. Dean, F. S. Wartman

THE production of titanium in 15-1b. lots and with a purity sufficient to be consolidated into ductile metal, as described in a previous paper,1 has provided adequate material for a study of the : physical properties of titanium and a more thorough examination of its working qualities. Data on the physical properties reported in that paper were obtained on metal fabricated by a fixed procedure, standardized for the purpose of control of the reduction, and are representative only of material fabricated under those conditions. There are many possible variables in the working schedule, which will have significant effects on the properties of the finished material; and since the previous working methods were not necessarily the best, an investigation of the fabrication of titanium by other methods was undertaken. In this work the consolidation of the powder by pressing and sintering was conducted essentially as outlined in the report cited' and all efforts were centered on fabrication methods for those powders and the properties produced by them. Hardness, density, microstructure, and tensile properties were determined at various stages in the working and annealing; and resistivity measurements were made on a few bars and drawn wire. [ ] CONSOLIDATION OF THE POWDER The screen analysis of the available titanium powder is given in Table I. No attempt was made to alter the size distribution from that noted because this powder, although coarse by normal powder-metallurgy standards, produced acceptable compacts suitable for the present work. Because of their large specific surface, finer powders are more contaminated by oxygen and produce harder compacts, which are difficult to work. The powder as produced is soft, compresses in a normal fashion, and exhibits very little tendency to adhere to the die surfaces. Unlike aluminum and magnesium powders, it can be readily pressed without the use of die lubricants. When compacted at so tons per

Jan 1, 1946

By T. D. Yensen

IN the investigation of the magnetic properties of iron-nickel alloys,1 it was found necessary in order to make the alloys forgeable, or malleable, to add small quantities of some other element. Iron-nickel alloys have been known for nearly a century, but have been made in commercial quantities only since 1885. Their remarkable mechanical properties were disclosed by Riley in 1889 and from that time on a large amount of research work has been done both to discover new properties and to correlate the results obtained.2 Lately the Bureau of Standards has collected the published data in a special circular3 giving in compact form an account of the properties of the iron-nickel alloys. It also contains a clear historical sketch of the development as well as a selected bibliography. The chief difficulty with the development of iron-nickel alloys was that the "pure" alloys do not forge readily. The addition of small amounts of manganese, however, made the alloys forgeable, and manganese has therefore come to be regarded as a necessary constituent of nickel steels. The present paper shows to what extent manganese is needed for various nickel contents and also what is the effect of other alloying elements on the forgeability. It also touches upon the cause of forgeability but refers to other sources for more exhaustive treatises, on the subject. The alloys were prepared by melting electrolytic iron and electrolytic nickel with of without other alloying elements in the desired proportions in a magnesia crucible in a vacuum furnace under a. pressure of 1 mm. mercury. The ingots weighing about 2 kg. were allowed to cool in vacuo. If pipes or blowholes were present, the ingots were cut in such

Jan 1, 1920

By J. S. Pascover, S. V. Radcliffe

The structures and transformation temperatures of high-purity Fe-Cr alloys have been investigated as functions of composition (0 to 10 wt pct Cr) and rate of quenching from the high-temperature Y phase field (up to 40,000°C sec-1). The structures were chmacterized by transmission electron microscopy. The transformation temperatures for each alloy exhibited the progressive decrease to a constant value with increasing cooling rate which has been shown to be characteristic of several iron binary systems. The corresponding structures were found to become increasingly finer in scale with increasing cooling rate and solute content, but to remain essentially equiaxed in character. In all the materials except the high-purity iron and one of the alloys, an additional and lower transformation temperature than the constant value for the equiaxed structures was observed. The structures of specimens which transformed at these lower temperatures (only single thermal wrests were observed in any given run) were martensitic and consisted of arrays of fine ferrite laths which varied in size and morphology with changing solute content. The factors controlling the nature of these transformations are discussed. The composition dependence of the martensitic transformation temperature, ME, in Fe-Cr alloys together with those reported for other iron binary systems indicate that MB for pure iron is some 700°c, rather than the values of 550° and 760°C reported previously. This conclusion is further supported by the results of a compmison of the thermodynamics of mmtensite formation in several systems. ThE extensive investigations of the structures formed on athermal transformation in iron and its alloys have led to the characterization of several forms of martensitic or "military"1,2 transformations and, in addition, a "civilian7' transformation to ferrite or "equiaxed a"* which occurs athermally and at a very high rate.374

Jan 1, 1969