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By O. Alvarez-Campos

Two porphyry copper orebodies, the North and Central MM orebodies, have been found through regional and structural geologic works, about 5 Km south of Chuquicamata, under a gravel bed of approximately 100 m and in the west side of the West Fissure. The mineralization is emplaced in a coarse granodioritic porphyry, predominantly with sericitic alteration. In the North MM ore-body, with 200 million metric tons of 1.0% Cu, the mineralization is mainly chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite and molibdenite. In the central MM orebody, with 700 million metric tons of 1.3% Cu, there are large veins of enargite, chalcocite and bornite, the last one increasing in depth, separated by chalcopyrite and pyrite zones; in these veins there are interesting gold and silver values. Both orebodies have an upper enrichment of chalcocite and covellite, with pyrite envelope. According with these characteristics, the MM orebodies could he the upper part, with sericitic alteration, of the Chuquicamata porphyry copper system, displaced by the West Fissure system movements, but we couldn't eliminate the possibility that MM can be a new orebody, different of Chuquicamata.

Jan 1, 1993

By Robert M. Cox

Systematic roof bolting has proven to be a very effective method of mine roof control; however, major roof failures still occur and roof falls still remain the number one occupational hazard of underground miners. Why do some bolted mine roofs fail, while the vast majority of bolted mine roof remains stable and safe to work under? Observations of numerous roof failures indicate that most of the major roof failures* are associated with either: 1) Jointing, faulting or other structural fracture zones; 2) massive shale beds of lenticular structure, or 3) thinly laminated sand-shales. The jointing and faulting present an obvious weakness in the roof rock structure; whereas, the massive shales and laminated sandy-shales create a roof structure with low shear strength and/or modulus of deformation. An observation of major significance is that most bolted mine roofs fail as a unit, and that the thickness of the fall is roughly equivalent to the roof bolt length (See Figure 1). In fact, several operators have experienced the phenomenon of an increase in roof fall thickness with an increase in roof bolt length.

Jan 1, 1973

By Lawrence A. Taylor

The rocks and minerals of the moon will be included among the raw materials used to construct a lunar base. The lunar regolith, the fragmental material present on the surface of the Moon, is composed mostly of disaggregated rocks and minerals, but also includes glassy fragments fused together by meteorite impacts. The finer fraction (i.e., < lcm) of the regolith, the soil, is probably the most important portion of the regolith for use at a lunar base. For example, soil can be used in bulk as insulation against cosmic rays, for lunar ceramic and abodes, or for growing plants. However, beneficiation of the soil can provide other feedstocks. For example, the soil contains abundant solar-wind implanted elements, as we1 1 as various minerals, particularly oxide phases, which are of potential economic importance. These components of the soil are sources of oxygen and hydrogen for water and rocket fuel, helium for nuclear energy, and metals such as Fe, Ni, Al, Si, and Ti. The uses of the lunar materials only await a fertile imagination.

Jan 1, 1990

By Tetsuji Hirato, A. J. Monhemius, Yasuhiro Awakura, G. W. Warren, E. Peters

An electrostatic pseudo-liquid membrane technique, in which extraction and stripping take place simultaneously in a single reaction vessel using an electrostatic dispersion, was applied to recover Ni(II) from aqueous 0.1 kg m-3 Ni(II)(as NiSO4) – CH3COONa solutions, and the Ni(II) ions were concentrated by a factor of 9 into an aqueous 1.0 kmol m-3 HCI solution using D2EHPA as an extractant at the applied voltage of 3.7 kV for the dispersion. When the process of ESPLIM proceeds favorably, the concentration of Ni(II) in the upper part of the organic phase of the reaction vessel is lower than that in the lower part. In addition, the concentration of Ni(II) in the organic phase of the extraction chamber is higher than that in the stripping chamber. For the stable operation of this process, the stripping rate must be greater than the extraction rate to prevent the excess accumulation of Ni(II) in the organic phase which leads to the poor dispersion of the aqueous phase.

Jan 1, 1993

By Sigmund J. Sulinski

All Sanitary District contract documents for new tunnel construction permit the Contractor a choice of four (4) separate alternate tunnel sections. This is the result of a continuing District policy to encourage at all times the use of the most suitable construction techniques and to attract to District construction the broadest spectrum of proven capabilities. Figure 1 indicates the alternate tunnel sections allowed on District contracts as follows: 1. A horse shoe section, ribbed and lagged, and a poured reinforced concrete tunnel liner; 2. Circular section, ribbed and lagged, and a poured in place reinforced concrete tunnel liner; 3. Circular section, ribbed and lagged, and a precast reinforced concrete pipe liner grouted in place; and 4. Circular section, no temporary lining, and a precast reinforced concrete pipe liner to be jacked in place. The Sanitary District now has in operation 10,500&apos; of 5&apos;6" I.D. and 6,500&apos; of 5&apos;0" I.D. jacked tunnel. An additional 5,600&apos; of 7&apos;6" I.D. jacked tunnel is currently under construction.

Jan 1, 1997

By Don Macfarlane, Brian Heer, Tom Martin

The Manapouri Power Station, commisioned in 1969, is located in Fiordland National Park in the South Island of New Zealand. It is the country’s largest hydro power scheme and can generate 700MW of electricity. The power station utilizes the hydraulic head of Lake Manapouri, using an underground power station and a 10 km-long tailrace tunnel was constructed by drill-and-blast to allow discharge to Doubtful Sound. Power generation fell short of expectations due to higher than expected friction in the tailrace system. To remedy this a second tailrace tunnel was constructed between June 1998and May 2002. It consisted of a 10 m diameter, 10 km long tunnel in predominately gneissic rock and was excavated using an Atlas Copco Robbins TBM. High water inflows, Owner/Contractor production incentives and a major claim settlement were handled during the 5 1/4 year project. This paper discusses TBM advance rates, utilization factors that increased in the second half of the project plus an innovative method for sealing Tunnel 1 to construct the bifurcation.

Jan 1, 2003

By Paul L. Russell, R. G. K. Morrison

9.1-CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS AND ROCK MATERIALS After a mineral deposit has been discovered, delineated and evaluated, the next step is to select a mining method that is physically, economically and environ- mentally adaptable to recovering the mineral from the deposit. The term "mineral deposit" is used to denote a concentration of mineral (including rock and coal). Even where there is considerable past experience available, many of the critical design criteria must be determined utilizing only information obtained from an examination of exploratory drill core specimens. The factors that affect this selection are as follows: (1) the spatial characteristics of the deposit (size, shape, attitude and depth); (2) the physical (or mechanical) properties of the mineral deposit and surrounding rock; (3) ground water and hydraulic conditions; (4) economic factors, including grade of the ore. comparative mining costs and desired production rates; and (5) environmental factors, such as the preservation of the surface overlying the mine, and the prevention of air and water pollutants. Of these factors, the spatial characteristics of the deposit and the physical (or mechanical) properties of the mineral and surrounding rock limit the methods that can be employed to mine it. Six types of mineral deposits are recognized, as follows: 1. Massive-A deposit of considerable lateral and vertical extent in which mineralization (or ore) is relatively uniformly distributed. Disseminated copper ores are typical deposits. Dome salt also is included in this classification. 2. Bedded or Tabular-A mineral deposit that parallels the stratification, most often in sedimentary rock, usually laterally extensive, and of limited thickness. Most coal measures and some evaporite mineral deposits (e.g., potash) fall in this class. 3. Narrow Vein-A zone or belt of mineralization (ore) typically long, narrow (less than 10 ft), often dipping steeply, and usually lying within boundaries separating it from neigh- boring rock. Many gold and other metallic minerals occur in narrow veins. 4. Wide Vein-As defined under narrow vein except that the vein thickness is greater than 10 ft. 5. Lentictclar or Pocket-An isolated ore body, or an enrichment of limited vertical and horizontal extent in a massive, bedded or vein deposit. Lead, zinc and iron ores often occur in this type of deposit. 6. Placer-A surface or near-surface deposit, usually tabular and may be of consider- able areal extent, containing mineral particles (e.g., gold, platinum) in detritus (e.g., sand, gravel). The rock materials associated with mineral deposits are classified as follows: 1. Detritus-Sediments and other accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and/or chemical disintegration of rocks, and usually having a low cohesive strength and very low compressive strength (e.g.. soil, sand, gravel, alluvium, playa). 2. Jointed and Fractured-Unbonded-A rock mass, often occurring on or near the surface or in fault zones, in which the joints or fractures contain alteration or decomposition

Jan 1, 1973

By Gerry Norton

The overall economics of a coal production unit are governed by a number of interdependent parameters which individually and collectively affect the final result. A business judgement is measured through return on investment considerations and in this respect, a sensitivity analysis proves useful. Figures 1 and 2 show how the various parameters affect return on investment through unfavourable change from planned or expected values. In the case of metallurgical coals, the selling price negotiated is the primary and most sensitive variable, followed by transportation, clean coal yield and capital funds invested in mining. It is clear that coal preparation plant capital and operating costs are the least sensitive to R.O.I. For energy coals, the selling price is determined by heat energy content (x cents per million BTU&apos;s) and is therefore not con¬sidered as an interdependent variable. In this case, transportation cost is the major primary factor affecting the level of income. Again the amount of saleable clean coal or total yield has a major effect on return on investment. Most of the factors considered in Figures 1 and 2 are fixed and unfavorable change from planned values becomes critical but clean coal yield is to a great extent controllable during actual operations. Once the theoretical yield for a particular coal has been determined, the optimum return is achieved by approaching this theoretical yield as nearly as possible in practical commercial operation.

Jan 1, 1975

By R. Masse, J. Chameaud, J. Lafuma, R. Perraud

Estimating the risk of lung cancers for workers in uranium mines and defining the resulting dose equivalent limits have been made possible thanks to work carried out in two scientific fields : physics and epidemiology. Theoretical calculations on the basis of physical models for the former and epidemiological surveys on the mortality of uranium miners from lung cancer for the latter. However, even though considerable work has been done in these two areas, the results obtained still remain controversial on several points. The radioactive and physical instability of the aerosols present in the atmosphere of the mines and the biological complexity of the human lung which even the most sophisticated physical models can reproduce only very schematically have often proved to be insurmountable difficulties for physicists, explaining the uncertainties which subsist concerning the dose delivered to the various parts of the respiratory tract from the air breathed by miners during their work. Epidemiological investigations on the other hand, in spite of the high quality of the surveys carried out, remain open to criticism, essentially because of the very approximative estimation of the individual occupational exposure to radon daughters. This is due to the fact that uncertainties arise from the measurement of radon gas if the state of equilibrium with the daughters is not accurately known or, if the active deposit is measured, to the fact that these measurements are insufficient in number. The controversies and discrepancies which subsist with regard to the evaluation of the level of risk, and in particular for low doses, can thus be understood. In addition, epidemiological surveys cannot dissociate the carcinogenic action of radon from the synergistic or potentiating actions of tabacco and of other pollutants present in uranium mine air. Animal experiments have been largely taken into account for evaluating the toxicity of various radionuclides. This type of experiment is necessary when human data do not exist and has provided us with much information. For instance, the relative biological effectiveness of the various types of radiation, the metabolism of radionuclides and the mechanisms of cancer induction have been approached and satisfactorily resolved in this way. Concerning radon and its daughters, however, animal experiments have been used very little even though it seems apparent that they should complement epidemiological studies. For instance, whereas doubt can be cast on the data obtained from human epidemiology because of the uncertainty concerning the individual exposure of miners, those drawn from experiments are indisputable because in this case the dose is as perfectly known as the effect. In addition, the effects of radon can experimentally be appreciated separately whereas in the surveys, they cannot be dissociated from the effects of the other pollutants in the mine. Finally, there are no other means of dealing with the mechanisms of cancer induction. In order to gain any useful knowledge from this method however, the experimental model must necessarily present certain methodological guarantees and the effects seen in the animals must enable a comparison with those which appear in man. For this reason we will present here the animal model we have been using for 15 years, and will give the results obtained and compare them with human data and made a synthesis. Finally the conclusions which can be drawn will be discussed as well as their limitations with respect to the protection of uranium miners. I - MATERIAL AND METHODS Male SPF Sprague-Dawley rats were used. At the onset of the inhalations they were around 3 months old. Their small size makes it possible to expose a large number of animals at the same time. Their life-span is long enough to be able to follow the evolution of the cancers and to estimate the latency time. Finally, they present the advantage of having a very low rate of spontaneous lung cancers (SANDERS, 1979). I.1 - Three inhalation techniques were used. 1.1.1. – [Inhalation of radon decay products.] The inhalation apparatus has been described previously (CHAMEAUD et al. 1971). The first experiments utilized a room of a half cubic meter linked to a source made up of high grade uranium ore. Later on, a large installation was built with a 10 m3 inhalation chamber making it possible to expose up to 500 rats at one time at radon concentrations ranging from 100 to 10 000 WL for variable lengths of time (1 to 10 hours per day). These concentrations are higher than those to which the miners are generally exposed, but in order for the cumulated doses in man and in animal to be similar and delivered for the same fraction of their respective life-spans, the ratio of the concentrations should be approximately that of the life-spans. The concentrations of radon and its daughters during the experiments were carefully controlled thanks to multiple samplings of radon gas associated with measurements of radon decay products. I.1.2 – [ The dust inhalation chamber] has already been described : it is a dust-loading chamber where the dust content remains constant during the experiment and can hold over 20 - 30 animals (PERRAUD et al, 1970). I.1.3 – [Tobacco inhalations] take place in a smoke box

Jan 1, 1981

By R. A. Young

Effective October 1, 1958, President Eisenhower imposed, by Presidential Order, fixed import quotas on lead metal and lead concentrates and also on zinc metal and zinc concentrates. He did this in response to an escape clause case under the Trade Agreements Act filed by many of the large and small lead and zinc mining companies in September 1957. It is the purpose of this paper to give the experience of the lead-zinc industry under this order during its first two years and some observations on what might have come about under different conditions of U.S.A. consumption. Before considering these various experiences and observations, it seems wise to first outline briefly the basic problem which prompted such an order. Under the Tariff Act of 1930, the duty on pig lead was fixed at 2-l/8¢ per pound and slab zinc at 1-3/4e; per pound. The ores, concentrates and closely related products of these metals carried closely related duty rates. The Trade Agreements Act of 1934 and succeeding similar acts had given the, President the power to lower these and other duties. As a result-of various negotiations with foreign nations, by 1951 these duties had been lowered to their present day rates of 1-1/16 per pound on&apos; pig lead and 7/10o, per pound on slab zinc. Related ores, concentrates and semi-fabricated forms of the metals received commensurate treatment. Under these acts, the Tariff Commission has the right to recommend to the President duty increases, specific quotas or both if find that imports have injured the affected industry. He has the right to accept or reject such recommendations, in whole or in part, in the light of the national interest,

Jan 1, 1961

By M. J. Mrugala

Typically the conventional pillar design methods consider the behavior of the pillar alone. In such analysis the contribution of the associated roof and pillar is not considered. The focus of this paper is a study of pillar behavior in the context of interaction between a different rock material sequence in the associated roof and floor. The finite difference element code FLAC (1)is used to perform modeling of pillar response to various stratigraphic sequences.

Jan 1, 2003

By Patrick J. Doig

The Crosstown 7 Collector System, Contract C28G11, is part of the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District&apos;s Waste Pollution Abatement Program. The contract involves the construction of 1.6 km (1 mile) of 3 m (10 ft.) diameter tunnel in soft ground. The tunnel is 10 m (35 Ft.) below surface and passes through a variety of soils. The eastern leg of the tunnel along Bruce Street is mainly in till material, a stiff, relatively dry clay. The northern leg along 16th Street starts in till, and continues in estuarine deposits - moist sticky clay, with intrusions of alluvial sand and gravel. The contract specifications required that the tunnel be constructed either under compressed air or with an earth pressure balance tunnel boring machine. The S. A. Healy Co., the general contractor, chose the latter option. Additionally, a single pass, pre-cast concrete segmental liner was selected as the lining system. The mining machine was manufactured by Lovat Tunnel of Canada and the segments were made by the Sehulster Company of Milwaukee. The use of this combination of machine and lining is relatively new to the United States and this tunnel is the most extensive built to date with a gasketed, segmental single pass lining for transportation of fluids. This paper details the various aspects of the construction of the tunnel and associated shafts.

Jan 1, 1989

By John M. Wootten

The development of new coal markets is -t upon the ability to utilize coal in an environmentally acceptable and economically viable fashion. Foremost in the concerns about coal utilization is the impact its combustion has on air pollution. Concerns over environmental issues, such as acid rain, are currently one of the major impediments to the development of new coal markets. The Department of Energy and the Synthetic Fuels Corporation are addressing certain aspects of the development of new technologies for the utilization of coal. However, at the present time, there is a void in the new technology development process. That void is the step from proof- of-concept to commercial demonstration. Congress has established the Clean Coal Technology Fund at a level of $750 million to fill this void. The Department of Energy, in a solicitation of interest, received over 175 proposals for commercial demonstrations of clean coal technologies. A review of these solicitations indicates that $1.2 billion worth of research could be accomplished with a federal cost sharing of $425 million or 35 percent of the total. Industry has indicated, through this response, its willingness to invest its limited funds on projects it feels have the greatest potential for the clean use of coal. What must now occur is that Congress must appropriate the monies from the fund to initiate the commercialization of these clean coal techno1ogies.

Jan 1, 1986

By Zbigniew Hladysz

INTRODUCTION In the Polish coal mining industry, the Upper Silesian coal basin has an important position. It contributes over 98% of the total coal production of Poland which reached 193 mt in the year 1979. In view of the significant urbanized area in this region as well as the industrial potential, it is important to protect the surface by stowing the mined out underground workings. Approximately 18% of the total production is mined from longwall faces with stowing. However, caved longwall faces are most popular. In the upper Silesian coalfield, approximately 337 highly mechanized longwall faces are in operation. Out of these 337 faces, 301 longwall faces are caved. One of the main requirements for effective and safe coal extraction is a suitable method for strata control. We can divide the complex process of strata control into four steps: 1. Strata investigations 2. Selection of supports for roadways 3. Selection of supports for longwall 4. Rock bursts and other hazards protection STRATA INVESTIGATIONS Estimation of the structure and physico-mechanical properties of the rock mass surrounding the workings is an important constituent of strata control. These factors definitely influence the rock stability, support load, working conditions as well as the mining technology. Complex methods of strata investigations involve a set of indicators enabling the estimation of the stability of the roof rock, strength of the coal seam and load bearing capacity of the floor. The basis for the evaluation of roof stability for a coal seam is the classification according to the resistance to bed separation (1). The bed separation resistance is equal to the strength of the rock in tension perpendicular to the bedding plane. In order to properly classify a rock, it is indispensable to make continuous profiles of the bed separation resistance from the immediate roof up to a distance of three times the thickness of the coal seam. The profiles are developed by utilizing mine roof investigations with the hydraulic borehole penetrometer. (Fig. 1) The penetration resistance is determined by the critical pressure required to cause crushing of the rock by the penetrometer indentor (2). The classification of roof rocks and their ability to cave spontaneously during longwall mining is shown in [Fig. 2]. The measurement of the critical pressure also allows for the determination of the compressive strength of the rock, the index of workability and roof fissuration.

Jan 1, 1982

By W. D. Mayercheck, A. G. Mayton, J. R. Bartels

Since 1982, the US Bureau of Mines has investigated improvements in protection for operators of thin seam shuttle cars. Due to working height restrictions in thin seam mines (=1.22 m or 48 in.). Federal mine regulations require that canopy protection on shuttle cars be provided only in mines =1.07 m (42 in.). However, court obtained variances are granted to mines =1 .22 m (48 in). This paper presents ongoing research to design and evaluate a uniquely positioned, ergonomic compartment for a shuttle car that provides the operator with full canopy protection in working heights of 1.02 m (40 in.).

Jan 1, 1990

By Ronald L. Haxby

This report presents a refractive seismic technique for evaluating the strength of rock within an open pit bench. A concept of correlating rock strength and seismic velocity is discussed and a method of predicting the degree of fragmentation of a pit bench is introduced, Figure 1 shows the area of interests [ ] Most of the work was performed while completing graduate studies at the University of Arizona.

Jan 1, 1967

By Bekta? Uz

The study area is located between Orhangazi and Sapanca geographically known as Armutlu Peninsula (Figure 1). It is steep broken and mountainous with an area of 4000 km2. [ ] Economic marbles are investigated in regionally such as Orhangazi, Elmali, Menek?eyayla, Sapanca, Pamukova and they are seperated approximately 800 km2 (Figure 2). These marbles are massive, thick and dispersed as small sized outcrops in Armutlu Peninsula.

Jan 1, 2005

By J. L. Chakravatti

INTRODUCTION Mining of uranium does not differ, in many respects, from the mining of other metals; the ore must be drilled, blasted and transported in an underground or surface mine. Underground mining proceeds by the continuous development and advancement of a network of passages and rooms or stopes from which ore is excavated. As in most mines, rock conditions and ore grades in uranium deposits vary from area to area and between different mines. For mineral benefications of this ore in the mills, use is made of various chemicals, often with toxic or hazardous properties.1 As well as the need to control the more conventional hazards associated with any mining and milling operation, special care needs to be exercised in the mining and milling of uranium because of the radioactive nature of the ore. This requires that we examine closely the radiation hazard areas encountered in the mining and milling of uranium, with the broad overview of some of the basic facts in the radiation hazard control programme. To place the hazard in its proper perspective, we require recognition, evaluation and control of those factors arising in and from the workplace which may cause sickness, impaired health and affect the well being among workers or citizens of the community. The radiation environment in uranium mine is complex and variable. Although uranium ore is only mildly radioactive, it naturally contains a complex mixture of radioactive isotopes. Workers are exposed to external gamma radiation, to some beta radiation and to airborne radon, radon daughters and ore dust. All of these types of exposures warrant considerations in formulating control procedures but, in general, radon daughters are known to present the dominant risk. The basis of dose limitation in radiological protection is risk limitation. Long-term epidemiologic studies of United States uranium miners and that of miners in Czechoslovakia indicate that the incidence of lung cancer can be accounted for by a linear relationship with exposure to radon decay products.2 On the basis of this proportional exposure-risk relationship, a risk coefficient for lung cancer in the range of 1-5.10-4 WLM-1 during the total lifetime, has been estimated by UNSCEAR3 and other researchers. It should be noted that this risk coefficient includes the excess lung cancer risk from external gamma radiation in mines and from other carcinogenic chemical effects, if any, to which the miners are normally exposed during their underground work. It also takes into regard the possible synergistic influences. This paper reviews the occurrence of radiation and its control factors and the development of engineering design features for the environmental control at Denison Mine. NATURAL URANIUM SERIES Uranium is the most common element in the Earth&apos;s crust. It is widely distributed in nature in all rocks and is readily measurable in the sea. Hence, radon gas is universally produced in every part of the globe. Mining is patently confined to ores containing more than half a kilogram, or so, per tonne of uranium unless it is combined with other marketable metals. Uranium-238 is the first element in the uranium series. In all, there are 13 radioactive decay products of 238U (Fig. 1), ending up as a stable isotope of Lead-206. The whole basis of the radiological hazards associated with the mining and milling of uranium is dependent on the behaviour of these isotopes during each phase of the process.

Jan 1, 1981

By John R. Marks

Few if any mines in North America have used exhaust air to remove heat at temperatures above the stope reject temperature. In contrast, the South African mining industry has long taken advantage of this heat removal method. The Homestake Gold Mine in Lead, South Dakota, has reached the point where a large air-conditioning upgrade is needed. Since existing air and water resources are being utilized about as well as practically possible, it was recently decided to install an 8.1 MW(R) (2300 ton) plant in the deepest mining division. Two horizontal bulk air spray coolers will distribute the coo1th to active workings via controlled recirculation. The heat will be rejected to exhaust air in four parallel cooling towers. The number and size of these large direct-contact heat exchangers prompted an investigation into South African planning techniques.

Jan 1, 1987

By M. D. Flavel, J. C. Motz, G. V. Jergensen

Introduction Compared to the gyratory crusher, the cone crusher is character¬ized by its higher speed and a flat crushing chamber design which is intended to give a high capacity and reduction ratio for materials suitable to this type of processing. The aim is to retain material longer in the crushing chamber to do more work on material as it is being processed. A concept of how a piece of stone might flow through a secondary crushing chamber is shown in Fig. 45. The number of times material will be nipped during crushing will depend on material size, friability, and the geometry of the crushing chamber as well as its speed and eccentric throw. Cone crushers are usually specified in terms of closed-side setting (CSS) and a given quantity of material passing a particular square-mesh screen size. A criterion of product passing closed-side setting is often available. This value will vary according to the particular crusher design and the details of its applica¬tion. Essentially, cone crushers can be classified into distinct types, depending on their duty. Crusher sizes for all duties are described by terms arising out of common industry usage, such as 3-ft, 7-ft, etc., which refer to the crushing-head (mantle) diameter. At present the range of sizes available varies from approximately 2 to 10 ft diam. Weights vary in the range of 5 to 200 tons, and connected horsepowers range from 10 through 700. There are so many variations that specifics should be obtained from machine manufacturers. The crushing chambers that are fitted to various machines are also often referred to by terms arising out of common usage, such as standard for secondary crushers, and short head for tertiary crush¬ers, which refer specifically to the Symons design. Also used are more specific but equally vague descriptions, such as coarse, intermedi¬ate, and fine chambers. Some manufacturers such as Allis-Chalmers with their Hydrocone crushers refer to the model number of the machine by the feed opening and the diameter of the mantle. For example, a Model 10-84 Hydrocone crusher has an 84-in. diam man¬tle, and is capable of accepting a 10-in. diam sphere at the feed point to the crushing chamber. Rexnord and Telsmith define crushing cavi¬ties in their capacity tables as feed openings at minimum recommended discharge settings (closed-side settings). Each practice offers guidelines which should be carefully defined for the specific crushing problem. The utilization of a cone crusher depends on how well it is controlled and the features of the circuit in which it operates. Normally, it will operate in the range of 75 to 85% of the peak capacity. It is likely that industry pressures will call for a standarized de¬ applied crushing power. Experience has shown that the crushing process is more controllable if certain reduction ratios are adhered to for each stage. Technically, this is defined as that size of feed (in. or mm) of which 80% will pass, divided by the size of the product (in. or mm) which 80% will pass. Secondary Crushers These are the cone crushers which accept suitable feed size material either prepared by a primary crusher or occurring naturally, and reduce it to a size suitable for marketing in one stage, or make feed for subsequent crushing or grinding stages. Secondary crushers have feed openings of 4 to 25 in. in the larger (7-ft) models down to a 2&apos;/a to 4 in. in the smallest 24-in. models. Reduction ratios normally range between 3:1 and seldom more than 5:1. In the 7-ft models, the cone crusher typically makes a product all passing 2 in., but this is dependent on the machine design and properties of the material being treated. Secondary crushers most commonly operate in open circuit. They also are operated in closed circuit with a vibrating screen, depending upon product requirements and conditions where the reduction ratio does not cause excessive power draw and build-up of circulating load. Screening ahead of secondary crushers is generally recommended, especially where the feed contains more than 25% material smaller than the desired closed-side setting. Tertiary Crushers These are cone crushers that normally take secondary crusher product and reduce it to a marketable product or make it suitable for subsequent comminution steps. The reduction achieved is a func¬tion of the crusher design and the properties of the material to be treated. The reduction ratio is normally in the range between 1.5 and 2 to 1, and seldom more than 3 to 1. The tertiary crusher normally operates in closed circuit with a vibrating screen and makes a product smaller than all passing &apos;h or 5/8 in. Fine Crushers Sometimes these machines are called sand crushers and are called by various manufacturer brand names, such as Gyradisc, Hydrofine, V.F.C., and others. A cross section of a Symons Gyradisc crusher is shown in Fig. 46. Essentially, these crushers would be used in a fourth-stage crushing operation, but could be called on to reduce a screened feed size fraction from a secondary or primary crushing operation. This type of crusher normally receives feed no coarser than 1&apos;h in. that is scalped of all over-sized material and operates in closed circuit with a vibrating screen. For average materials, typical product is &apos;/e in. top size, although a -10 mesh product can be produced on those materials having suitable characteristics. The crusher is nor¬mally operated in a separate circuit from the main crushing plant because of the variations in output rates that are caused by varying physical properties in the feed. The reduction ratio is generally less than 2:1, and circulating loads are generally high. More interparticle crushing takes place in these machines than with conventional cone crushers and capacities can be more sensitive to changes in moisture content, feed size graduation, and other physical properties. Design Features For the various applications, crusher manufacturers normally have a range of crushers of different sizes and power ratings to select from.

Jan 1, 1985