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By C. C. Whittier

CIVILIZATION'S PROGRESS, which has multiplied man's comforts, conveniences, a n d happiness, is based upon the extensive employment of natural minerals and sources of energy. Mineral resources are basic factors in modern economic development, machine industry, international trade and world power. A survey of mineral consumption shows that the United States leads the world in the production and consumption of energy materials, of metals, and of the large and diverse array of earth materials that fall in the nonmetallic mineral group. The use of nonrnetallic minerals exceeded both the metals and the fuels in the long period before the industrial age, but it is only in the last two decades that consumption of non- metals has kept pace with and approximated in value the output of metals. Although the data of production in the first half of the last century are meager and fragmentary, the record of the past fifty years-the period of most rapid growth-is available, and reveals an astounding growth.

Jan 1, 1933

By AIME AIME

DATA in this report enable comparisons to be made within the bituminous coal industry and comparison as well with copper and steel in respect to capacity and overdevelopment. The conclusions reached from the data will tend to correct numerous current misconceptions. The data have been prepared by various members of the Coal and Coke Committee of the A.I.M.E., from the most authentic sources avail¬able, and cover the period 1913-1924 wherever possible. CAPACITY AND OVERDEVELOPMENT Table 1 shows statistics for the industry, mainly from the U. S. Geological Survey sources, but partly from the U. S. Coal Commission reports. The mine capacity with equipment and labor as of given date is calculated for each state by obtaining the total man days worked as reported by the operators, and dividing this figure into the total production, getting the production per man day; this figure times the number of men employed times 308 (a theoretical full working year) equals estimated full-time capacity. Two major objections are made to this method-one that the total number of men employed is used instead of the number actually working, and the other that the number of days used only deducts Sundays and five holidays. Covering the first, the same number of men is used in estimating capacity as is used in actual production, and this condition exists at all times. Regarding the second, the opinion is general among coal men that 280 days is as great a figure as should be used, as it is practically impossible to keep any mine working full time at the same daily rate as when it is working part time. The capacity, as estimated on this basis, is much more nearly the true capacity, although even with present railroad efficiency this amount of coal could not be moved.

Jan 1, 1926

By E. G. Dahlgren, Dan O. Howard

THE West Edmond oil field, which covers parts of Oklahoma, Canadian, Kingfisher, and Logan Counties in the State of Oklahoma, is in geographical extent the largest single oil field found in the state. At the present time, its area of 26,800 acres is almost twice as large as the Oklahoma City field, which hitherto was the state's largest field. Many authorities believe that the West Edmond field is the most important oil pool found in the United States since Pearl Harbor. The discovery of the field without the help of geological, geophysical, or other recognized technical information, the fact that the oil and gas accumulated in a stratigraphic or wedge-type trap, and the rapid development of the productive area under wartime conditions are some of the interesting features of the field. The West Edmond field lies west of the Oklahoma City, Britton, and Edmond fields. The field is in an area that has been considered on the west flank of the Granite Ridge line of folding, on which a number of Central Oklahoma's most important oil fields are located. Over a period of years, especially since the discovery of the new pools such as Oklahoma City, Edmond, Britton, and Crescent, the general area of the West Edmond field has been explored intensively by geological and geophysical methods. This led at times to the drilling of a few dry Wilcox sand tests.

Jan 1, 1945

By William H. Waggaman

CURTAILMENT of the mineral industry as a whole undoubtedly will follow world peace, but the output of certain minerals should pursue a course well above the average on any curve of probable output projected beyond the trends exhibited through 1939. Without speculating on industrial conditions in the pending recomversion period, demand for fluorspar should be greater than before the war because of these factors, introduced by or resulting directly from military necessity: (1) Discovery and development of new deposits. (2) Improved technology in benefication. (3) New and expanded uses for fluorspar and its derivatives. The steel industry has been and continues to be the greatest consumer of fluorspar, and it wag largely to meet the wartime needs for steel that the domestic fluorspar industry has been expanded so greatly. Not only were the search for and development of new deposits of this mineral considered esstinal but the marginal nature of some of the,c- domestic deposits made it necessary to improve mineral dressinc and processing techniques to utilize them

Jan 1, 1945

By C. C. Whittier

PLANS are well matured for the joint meeting of the Coal Division and the Ohio Section of the Institute at Columbus, Ohio, Oct. 27 and 28, at which a large attendance is expected. The proceedings for a day and a half will be devoted largely to the uses of coal, the program providing for two technical sessions in the auditorium of Battelle Memorial Institute (505 King Ave.) on Friday, and various plant inspec¬tions on Saturday morning. By way of diversion on Saturday afternoon arrangements have been made for attendance en bloc at the football game between Ohio State and Northwestern, 100 seats having been reserved for the game at $2.40 each-as long as they last. An inventory of the high lights of the meeting would be incomplete without reference to the informal banquet at the Deshler-Wallick hotel on Friday evening, for which Eli T. Conner, Chairman of the Coal Division, is down for a talk, and Howard N. Eavenson, Vice-president of the Institute, will be the principal speaker. The program in detail is as follows:

Jan 1, 1933

By Charles Hart

A STUDY of the various ores that have been discussed impresses one with the need of beneficiation, in many cases. This applies to the ores that have lain dormant, due to necessity for further preparation, or to ores that now find a market due to a changed condition. Processes of beneficiation will come into their own as our richer ores become exhausted. Many efforts at improvement have been commercial failures, due to prematurity. Thomas A. Edison, with characteristic foresight, attempted concentration of the low- grade New Jersey magnetites some thirty years ago. Due to high costs and the discovery of the Mesabi range, his efforts were futile. However, a successful crusher, designed by Mr. Edison, resulted from this attempt. Agglomeration of concentrates had not, at that time, been brought to its present efficiency, when sinters and briquettes of excellent physical condition are obtainable. Recent efforts in the beneficiation of the lean magnetites of the East Mesabi resulted in an excellent sinter, but that operation is also ahead of its time.

Jan 1, 1929

By Charles Will Wright

Brief descriptions of the occurrence of the various deposits of strategic minerals then known in South America are published in "The Mineral Deposits of South America," by B. L. Miller and J. T. Singewald, 1919; in "Ores and Industry in South America," by H. F. Bain and T. T. Read, 1934; and in many publications on the individual countries. To give a gen.era1 idea of the situation today and possibilities for future output of strategic minerals in several of the countries, the following notes are offered. All tonnages are in metric units.

Jan 1, 1940

By John C. Cosgrove

IT was just five minutes past midnight, on Wednesday, Jan. 5, 1938, that Mrs. Cosgrove and I sailed from New York City. Our trip was to completely circle the globe, to cover over 40,000 miles and stop at thirty ports-from New York to Trinidad, to South America, via South Africa to the Orient, to India, to the Malay States, to Indo-China, the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and across the Pacific home via Honolulu. It is not my intention to make this a complete, technical study of coal or coal mining in the various countries that .we visited but more to outline the general in- formation that the mining engineer and coal operator would absorb in his travels. Coal is the universal fuel and is in use wherever there is commerce and industry. Even on our ship, which, like practically all ocean liners was an oil-burner, a considerable quantity of coal was used for cooking.

Jan 1, 1939

By Charles Will Wright

MINERAL production in almost all European countries suffered a sharp setback because of the war. Plants were damaged, transportation facilities disrupted, and labor dispersed and demoralized. Since the war, due to lack of confidence and economic stability, there has been little incentive to rebuild and expand the mineral industries even though a big demand at high prices exists for mineral products. Most mining and metallurgical companies in Europe hesitate to invest their capital because of the tendency towards nationalizing industry, high taxes, and low output of labor, as well as the deficiency of mine supplies and equipment within their countries. In short, they do not have faith in the future, and for these same reasons and fears most of the mining companies in America will not risk capital investment in Europe. In Europe, including the United Kingdom, free enterprise has been losing ground and as a result the foundation of their economic welfare is being undermined. American mining interests willing to take the initiative could help in counteracting this influence if a way were found for them to co-operate with the European producer without too great a risk.

Jan 1, 1948

By Albert F. J. Bordeaux

(Cleveland Meeting, October, 1912.) THE immediate vicinity of the sea-shore, affording special facility for the exportation of ores, makes it possible to work certain mines in the Vladivostok district, which, in more remote places of Siberia, would remain unproductive. Outside of the city of Vladivostok the population is small and the country is very little prospected. Additional discoveries of valuable deposits like the large body of calamine which has recently been opened in the neighborhood of earlier worked lead-silver ores, in the Tetiuhe valley, are still in the field of possibilities. For many years gold alone was produced, in part from the coastal rivers and in part from a quartz-vein on Askold island near Vladivostok. But the production is diminishing, and prospectors are looking for other rivers in the interior, such as the tributaries of the Ussuri. These rivers are now more accessible than formerly, due to the slow but gradual development, of colonization by the Russian peasants. The few natives of the country, called Orodjones, are of the Chinese race. They resemble the North American Indian and are hardy fur-hunters. They have given some attention to placers and have already shown good specimens of gold-dust from the rivers Iman, Bikin, Noto, etc. Coal-mining was begun in the Vladivostok region more than 20 years ago, but in a somewhat irregular way. The industry is not as yet important and the best coal-seams are badly prospected, or ire even neglected. Copper, lead, and iron exist in several places. The amounts give some encouragement to the anticipation that the discoveries will give rise to important metallurgical works. I here present a review of the various deposits, based upon such safe information as is in hand, when I have not drawn upon my personal observations. Fig. 1 is a snap of Eastern Siberia, showing the mineral deposits.

Oct 1, 1912

By M. L. Requa

EVERY forward step in civilization brings with it an increase in population and increasing demand for raw materials. Modern civilization, because of its industrial development, depends more and more for its well-being on ample supplies of raw materials; the higher the type of that civilization, the greater its dependence. No fact is more obvious than that the raw materials should be put to use with greatest prudence and efficiency. National life is not a matter of a decade or a century. Conservation is no longer a matter for political discussion; it is a vital element in the future welfare of all nations. Unfortunately, to the minds of many, conservation means the locking up of natural resources, their arbitrary withdrawal, bringing about, in short, a condition of industrial stagnation. This has occurred in past centuries through misdirected governmental effort. Two eminent engineers have variously defined conservation as follows:

Jan 1, 1925

By Herbert Hoover

I HAVE been greatly honored as your unanimous choice for President of this. Institute, with which I have been associated during my entire professional life. It is customary for your new President, on these occasions, to make some observation on matters of general interest from the engineer's standpoint. The profession of engineering in the United States comprises not alone scientific advisers on industry but, in great majority, is comprised of the men in administrative positions. In such positions, they stand midway between capital and labor. The character of your training and experience leads you to exact and quantitative thought. This basis of training in a great group of Americans furnished a wonderful' recruiting ground for service in these last years of tribulation. Many thousands of engineers were called into the army, the navy, and civilian service for the Government. Thousands of high offices were discharged by them with credit to the profession and the nation. We have in. this country, probably, one hundred thousand professional engineers. The events of the past few years have greatly stirred their interest in national problems.' This has taken practical. form in the maintenance of joint committees for discussion of these problems and support to a free advisory bureau in ,Washington. The engineers want nothing for themselves from Congress.. They want efficiency in government, and you contribute to the maintenance of this bureau out of sheer idealism. This organization for consideration of national problems has had many subjects before it, and I propose to touch on some of them this evening.

Jan 1, 1920

By R. P. Smith

In 1937 the employees of the Hollinger Consolidated Gold Mines Ltd.. at Timmins. Ont., Canada, approached organized medicine for a plan to provide themselves and their families with a complete medical service including hospitalization. This approach was made because of two conditions: (1) the necessity for some organization whereby contributions could be made in instalments to offset the sudden and large expense connected with illness for which the average employee is not prepared, and (2) the need for a more cohesive quality of service to replace a contract practice then in vogue, which did not take care of the employee's family or dependents. In different parts of the United States and Canada similar plans were in force, not only for employed groups but for numbers of people in circumscribed areas. In Europe different countries had adopted various forms of health insurance plans. It then was no surprise that these employees as a group should ask for some similar plan. With the cooperation of the management, a plan was instituted. The plan has one object only—the provision of medical services, including the accessory services such as hospitaliza-tion, X-rays, nursing, and necessary drugs and medicines. It is not concerned with cash benefits, sickness and accident payments, or any form of monetary return as the result of illness, but is simply an organization to provide medical services and pay for them from a central fund. It is a nonprofit organization and the only shareholders are the employees and their families who contribute and who in turn receive services. The Hollinger plan is limited to the employees of the Hollinger mine, who live in Timmins and the immediate vicinity. At first, the membership was voluntary. In the third year, it was made a condition of employment, with the proviso that at the end of any Association financial year an employee may withdraw if he wishes to do so. After withdrawal, he cannot again become a member until the end of the next Association year, and then only by the payment of the back dues. This step was taken to ensure continuity, and to prevent employees from withdrawing when well and reentering when faced with impending illness or operations. The employee himself is subject to medical examination on application for employment, and if accepted is subject to further examination by a specialist in chest diseases under the Workmen's Compensation Board of Ontario. Thus it is possible to exclude those who have heart disease, tuberculosis, or other disabling conditions when first employed. Wives and families of employees are not subject to medical examination but other dependents of an employee—mother, father, or other relative—who are declared by the employee to be wholly dependent upon him must be examined. The employee

Jan 1, 1946

By L. H. E. Weyher

As a result of past developments, mainly at universities, the coal industry has had access for a decade or more to a number of computer programs for coal mine planning. Using some of these programs Bethlehem Steel's Research Department in 1969 launched jointly with Bethlehem Mines Corporation an extensive research and development program aimed at: (1) testing the capabilities of these programs through trial applications as the need and opportunity existed, (2) defining what additional capabilities were required to make mine planning computer systems fully useful in the hands of Bethlehem's mine-planning engineers in the field, and (3) developing and implementing in the field the mine-planning systems agreed on. This program is now nearing completion, and several of Bethlehem's operations routinely use the planning tools that were developed. The progress of this research program is discussed in terms of our initial trial applications of computer methods to mine planning and the incorporation of several innovative features into our new set of computer programs, in particular, the use of time sharing, data base management systems, and general-purpose simulation languages.

Jan 1, 1977

By Kyle Wightman

INTRODUCTION CRA Limited is the largest mining group in Australia by value of sales and the second largest company in Australia in terms of share market capitalisation. In the past 25 years, CRA, its predecessors and affiliates have been involved in a number of mining and further processing developments in Australia and elsewhere. Many of these have been financed using project financing techniques. These include Comalco's development of the Weipa bauxite deposits in Northern Queensland in the late 1950's, the Hamersley iron ore developments in the Pilbara region of Western Australia in the mid 1960's, the Queensland Alumina Limited alumina refinery in Gladstone, Queensland, at about the same time, and the Bougainville copper project in 1969/70. In the past three years CRA has again utilised project financing techniques to fund its Tarong steaming coal project in Queensland, the Blair Athol steaming coal project also in that State and CRA's interest in the Argyle diamond project in the Kimberley region of Western Austrlia. PROJECT FINANCE DEFINED Nevitt Definition Nevitt's is the most frequently quoted definition - "A financing of a particular economic unit in which a lender is satisfied to look initially to the cash flows and earnings of the economic unit as the source of funds from which a loan will be repaid and to the assets of the economic unit as collateral for the loan." Risk and Balance Sheet Treatment It is important to focus in more detail on two aspects of project financing, risk and balance sheet treatment. The assessment of the various elements of risk in a project and the sharing of that risk between sponsors and lenders is the most critical feature. At one end of the spectrum is full absorption of risk by the sponsor(s). This can be described as "on risk" or "on credit" or "full recourse" to the sponsor(s) and is effectively a corporate financing. At the other end of the spectrum the lenders absorb the whole risk in a non-recourse financing which is "off risk" or "off credit" for the sponsor. The other aspect is the sponsor's balance sheet treatment. If the balance sheet of the economic unit undertaking the project and the financing need not be consolidated into the balance sheet of the sponsor (because ownership does not exceed 50%) then the financing may be described as off-¬balance sheet. If consolidation is required then the financing is described as on-balance sheet. Most project financings involve some recourse to the sponsor, i.e. they are limited recourse. Very few are non-recourse or off credit to the sponsor. Limited recourse financings may be on-balance sheet although many may also be off-balance sheet insofar as consolidation is concerned. However, sponsor support may very well be a contingent liability to the sponsor and require disclosure by way of note to the balance sheet should consolidation not be required. CORPORATE FINANCE CONTRASTED A financing which is on credit or full recourse to the sponsor, whether it is directly borrowed or guaranteed by that sponsor, is a corporate financing. Lenders will tend to base their credit assessment on a historical assessment of the sponsor's activities and its financial results rather than an assessment of the project or a detailed assessment of the future activities and prospects of the sponsor. PROJECT FINANCE - A BORROWER'S PERCEPTION Although CRA could choose to arrange all finance on a corporate basis (except perhaps for the very largest projects or acquisitions), project financing techniques provide a number of specific advantages which CRA has noted and which should be carefully considered by a project sponsor. Advantages

Jan 1, 1985

By Yu A. Chernegov

Building up the USSR's economic strength was the result of all the achievements and successes of our economy. The Soviet Union was the first to begin planned guidance of the economy. The mining industry of the USSR, which holds the first place in the world output of mining production, has always been considered as the main raw materials basis of the country's economy. High and stable development rates are a feature of planned economic management, based on the social ownership of the means of production. During the past ten years from 1965 to 1875 the national income used for consumption and accumulation increased practically by 1.9 times. There has been no inflation, no unemployment in the Soviet Union for about forty years already. High and stable growth rates of the production of mining industries and that of the branches, which are their direct consumers are characterized by the data in table I. The achievements and successes of the economy's development are to a great extent determined by the three planning components, which are as follows:

Jan 1, 1977

By T. A. Rickard

Freeman, the English historian, said that he had learned from Macaulay "never to be afraid of using the same word or name over and over again if by that means anything could be added to clearness or force. Macaulay never goes on, like some writers, talking about `the former' and `the latter', `he', `she', `it', and `they', through !clause after clause, while his reader has to look back to see which of several persons it is that is so darkly referred to". He might have learned also from Macaulay that a preposition makes a' feeble ending for a serious statement. How often do you hear `the former' and `the latter' in conversation? Good conversation is a guide not to be dis¬dained. When you must use `the latter', do not confuse it with `the last'. Cheap labor, cheap fuel, and cheap transport are essential, the latter [last] being particularly important in base-metal mining. The apparatus may be used to determine such gases as hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, oxides of nitrogen and some others, as well as sulphur dioxide. In the case of the latter two, etc. The two last mentioned are "sulphur dioxide" and "some others". He should have stated which two, and he should have avoided that wretched phrase "in the case of ". Pinning may be partly prevented by use of chalk, oil, or turpentine. The latter [last] is best. I "Partly prevented" is a poor phrase. `Prevented! is a word that does not lend itself readily to modification. He means `checked' or `corrected'.

Jan 1, 1931

By R. A., Pallanch

THOUGH the flotation of gold ores has come into the lime- light largely in recent years, it is not a product of recent economic conditions but rather as old as flotation itself. It could hardly be other- wise, since gold, when in the right state of comminution and surface condition, is one of the more readily floated of minerals. In early practice it was not generally recognized that gold was floated as well; it was - thought that the gold was bound up with sulphide minerals that floated, but now we know that free gold must have been floated as well.

Jan 1, 1935

By J. VAN DEN BERC

Tin production and export from the Far East are still a long way off from the prewar figures. The Malayan Peninsula, which had a rather good start directly after the war largely because of stock piles found in Singapore and elsewhere, has since been hampered in the rehabilitation of its tin mines and dredging operations by material shortages and, more recently and more severely, by revolts and attacks of communist elements and gangster bands. These hindrances make working in the mines dangerous and form a daily threat against the valuable and highly vulnerable dredges. Contrary to the conditions in Malaya are those on the tin islands of Billiton, Banka, and Singkep-all in the Netherlands East Indies-where the Dutch have re-established peaceful relations with the population. Dutch efforts since the fall of 1945 have been rewarded by continuously increasing production, extension of production facilities, and return of moderate prosperity, complete safety, and all-out co-operation among the population ? native and Chinese ? to the benefit of all concerned.

Jan 1, 1949

By Oliver Bowles

GLASS razor blades, glass chairs, and marble window panes attest that creative genius was still active in 1935. Many less striking, though doubtless more important, developments are to be recorded for the nonmetallic mineral industries, and not the least of them is the establishment of an Industrial Minerals Division in the A.I.M.E. under the able leadership of Samuel H. Dolbear, Chairman. Thus the nonmetallics are rightly granted equal dignity with metals and fuels in the category of mineral industries. The brief review of progress that follows merely touches the fringe of important developments in this broad field.

Jan 1, 1936