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By Paul M. Tyler

Bismuth is a useful metal and rather an uncommon one . The element probably constitutes much less than one-millionth part of the earth's crust , but the potential supply - to no small extent as a by-product of the production of lead and copper with which it is associated in nature has tended for many decades to exceed the demand. A single mine in Bolivia could readily flood the world's markets , and considerable quantities of bismuth are allowed to escape recovery at many smelting plants .

Jul 1, 1931

By E. P. Youngman

The basic mining law of Netherland India is contained in N. I. Statute 1899 , No. 214 , as amended by N. I. Statute 1910 , No. 588 , and 1919 , No. 4 , which is quoted as the " Indian Mining Law, " the effective date of which was fixed as May 8 , 1907 , by proclamation dated October 12 , 1906. The Indian Mining Law was supplemented by Ordinance No. 38 , of 1930 , which was passed by the Volksraad on March 18 , 1930 , to become effective on October 1 , 1930 ( superseding an earlier ordinance entitled " Government Gazette , " 1906 , No. 434) . An important law with respect to American petroleum rights , Statute No. 23 , passed February 9 , 1928 , approving contracts between the Indian Government and the Netherland subsidiary of a large American oil company , is in the nature of a private law or of an enabling act ( see section of this paper entitled " Rights of Foreigners" ) . Statute 1930 , No. 348 , effective October 1 , 1930 , sets forth in minute detail conditions under which prospecting and mining permits may be granted. Statute 1930 , No. 341 , effective October 1 , 1930 , embodies the police regulations of the mining industry.

Jun 1, 1931

By Paul Hatmaker

Pumice and pumicite are siliceous volcanic substances quite similar in chemical composition , but somewhat different in physical properties , manner of formation , and mode of occurrence . Production in the United States has increased from 23,271 tons valued at $ 94,943 in 1910 , to 56,843 tons valued at $336,099 in 1930. Both pumice and pumicite are included in these figures as it has been impractical to collect statistical data on the separate commodities .

Mar 1, 1932

William Kent, New York City: I regret that I have not had the time since the Cincinnati meeting to make as complete a study of Mr. Salom's paper as I wished. I regard it as one of the most important papers that have been presented on this subject, and worthy of complete study. I started out, on the limited time I had, on a system of study which I would recommend to any one else who has leisure to complete the investigation. I took the original report presented at the Cincinnati meeting, and selected from it' such tests as had the analyses reported along with the physical tests, giving the amounts of carbon, phosphorus, manganese, etc., taking only those in which all these elements are given.

Jan 1, 1885

PRESIDENT MARKS: This is a matter, I think, in which we are all very much interested, and I know We will have considerable discussion on the subject. MR. GIBSON: Wouldn't it be a fact, Mr. Trick, if a mine was laid off on the block system, it would require less ventilation, less cubic feet of air per minute, and therefore you would have that much better ventilation by

Jan 1, 1926

By K. Schimann, H. D. Knipping, J. P. Fouques

"RESUMELe gisement d 'uranium de Cigar Lake, dans la région de l'Athabasca au nord du Saskatchewan, fut découvert en mai 1981 par Cogema Canada Ltée, opérant pour Ie compte de la ""Waterbury Lake Joint Venture"".Le corps minéralisé. qui est dépourvu de toute expression directe en surface, est situé a la discordance entre les met sédiments du wottaston Group (Protérozoïque inférieur ou Aphébien) et les grès de l 'Athabasca (Protérozoïque moyen ou Hélikien), à une profondeur de 410 a450 m.Fin 1984, Ie gisement était reconnu par 105 sondages minéralisés repartis sur une longueur de 1800 m, pour une largeur comprise entre 25 et 105 m. 11 se présente sous forme d’une lentille aplatie de 5 a30 m de puissance, et montre une remarquable continuité d'ensemble. Une ride ou bombement topographique de la discordance est associée au gisement surtoute sa longueur.A l'échelle régionale, le corps minéralisé à est associe à un corridor structural d’orientation est-ouest, a l'intérieur duquel des facies particuliers aténdance blast mylonitique sont développes dans les formations métapolitiques agraphite du socle métamorphique. Il est entouré par un halo d'altération très important, caractériser Ie développement de minéraux argileux alumino-magnesiens (illite-chlorite).La minéralisation est située, pour la plus grande part, dans les grès d'Athabasca, et se compose essentiellement d'uraninite et de sulfo-arseniures de nickel et de cobalt,De nombreux levés géochimiques et géophysiques ont été effectues dans la région de Cigar Lake. Aucune anomalie ne peut être associée directement au corps minéralise, mais la combinaison des données en provenance de plusieurs sources s’est révélée fort utile au niveau de l’interprétation géologique régionale et de la définition des cibles de sondages a l'intérieur des zones reconnues favorables.Le gisement de Cigar Lake présente de nombreuses analogies avec plusieurs des gites classiques de la région de l'Athabasca; il est caractérise en particulier par l'intensité des phénomènes d’altération et la présence de minéralisations extrêmementriches.En 1984, les réserves géologiques globales estimées par géostatistique sur I ‘amas minéralise principal s 'élevaient a 110 000 tonnes d'uranium, aune teneur moyenne de 12.2%, avec une précision de 25% à l'intervalle de confiance de 95%.ABSTRACTThe Cigar Lake uranium deposit, in the Athabasca area of North Saskatchewan, was discovered in May 1981 by Cogema Canada LId., as operator of the Waterbury Lake Joint Venture. The deposit, which is devoid of direct surface expression, is located at the unconformity between the Lower Proterozoic (Aphebian) Wollaston Group meta-sediments and the Middle Proterozoic (Helikian) Athabasca sands tone, at a depth of 410 m to 450 m below surf ace.AI the end of 1984, the deposit had been defined by 105 mineralized holes over a length of 1800 m and a width of between 25 m and 105 m. It has the shape of a flat-lying lens 5 m to 30 m thick and shows a remarkable longitudinal and latera continuity from the information obtained to date. A well-defined bulge of the unconformity underlies the mineralized zone over its entire length.The deposit appears to be controlled by an east-west-trending structure within which a particular rock facies (""augen gneiss"") has developed in the graphitic metapelites of the Wollaston Group. It is surrounded by a strong alteration halo affecting both sandstone and basement, characterized by extensive development of Mg-A I rich clay minerals (illite-chlorite).The mineralization is hosted principally by the Athabasca sandstone, and consists mainly of uraninite and sulfo-arsenides of nickel and cobalt.Numerous geochemical and geophysical surveys have been carried out in the Cigar Lake area, and no specific geochemical or geophysical anomaly can be directly associated with the mineralized body, although there may be locally a good coincidence. However, a combination of several methods proved extre"

Jan 1, 1986

By M. E. Grimes

"The future of the uranium industry in Canada during the next twenty years will be very dependent on political and social issues on a world scale. Technology, as such, will tend to be of lesser importance. Nonetheless, some technical changes can be anticipated.This paper deals with milling of uranium ore, leaving further processing and nuclear power production to specialists in these fields. An attempt has been made to look at uranium production technology in Canada in relation to that in other countries, and to draw interference regarding future changes that seem probable in the Canadian context. In particular, recent advances in mill equipment are considered.The chemistry of uranium and its relatively low concentration in most ores has been responsible for a completely hydrometallurgical approach to mill processing, and this should continue. In spite of little commercial success to date, pre-concentration of lower grade ores will be researched further in order that these ores can compete with higher grade deposits in Canada.The discovery of the relatively high-grade ores of the Athabasksa region will undoubtedly influence choice of mill processes and equipment. The potential effect on innovations is discussed"

Jan 1, 1986

By Robert T. DeGavre

INTRODUCTION The $645 million financing for Inco Ltd's Soroako nickel project in Indonesia not only represents a significant human achievement but also there are certain important lessons that can be derived from Inco's experience in financing the project. The paper will not present a technical assessment of the project since Inco Ltd. submitted a series of papers on this subject at the international Laterite Symposium as part of the 108th Annual Meeting of the AIME in February 1979. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SOROAKO PROJECT Table 1 summarizes the milestones achieved in the Soroako project and its financing. Exploration Phase A contract of Work was signed on July 27, 1968 by the Republic of Indonesia and F.T. International Nickel Indonesia (P.T. Inco) covering an extensive area of over 25,000 square miles on the two southeastern arms of the island of Sulawesi. The Contract provides that P.T. Inco has the sole responsibility for financing the project and determining the terms on which the financing should be obtained, that P.T. Inco has the right to receive and hold outside of Indonesia foreign exchange revenues and to freely dispose of such revenues, and that Indonesians have the right to purchase up to 20% of the equity of P.T. Inco over a period following start of production. P.T. Inco began field investigations in the Contract Area in August 1968. Preliminary reconnaissance sampling with portable drills broadly outlined areas of favorable laterite terrain which were then systematically sampled on surveyed grids. By early 1971 sufficient exploration work had been completed to indicate that the laterite deposits near Soroako could sustain a major nickel-producing plant (figure 1). Pilot plant studies in 1970 and 1971 at Inco's research station in Port Colborne, Ontario, using two bulk samples of Soroako ore material, also confirmed that the ore could be upgraded and treated for the recovery of its metal values. Feasibility Phase Encouraged by the results of its exploration program and pilot-plant work, Inco Ltd. commissioned Toyo Engineering Company of Japan in August 1971 to prepare a capital cost estimate for a relatively small nickel project called "Stage I". Stage I was to be a single-line pyrometallurqical process plant with an annual capacity of approximately 15,000 metric tons of nickel contained in 75% nickel sulphide matte (see Figure 2). Electric power was to be supplied by a thermal power station. It is important to recognize that Inco's strategy was to develop the Soroako ore deposits in several stages: first, construct a small project to gain experience and to reduce the initial capital outlay and then later expand in one or more steps to a much larger project to achieve maximum economies. The strategy reflected both Inco's financial position in 1971 as its sales and earning dropped sharply and the difficulties previously experienced by Inco in trying to launch in the late 1960's very large "greenfield" nickel projects in New Caledonia and Guatemala. Toyo's Project Development Study was completed. in January 1972. Based upon Toyo's cost estimate for physical facilities, Inco estimated the total capital cost of Stage I to be $115 million. For the next several months, Inco ran numerous in-house financial feasibility studies, using as inputs Toyo's cost estimate and the results of its exploration and pilot plant programs. In September 1972, Inco completed a project feasibility study which was based upon a capital cost estimate of $135 million. The feasibility study was immediately made available to potential partners and lenders. Partner Negotiations The Japanese nickel market had from the outset been central to Inco's planning for the Soroako project. That market had been growing dramatically at rates in excess of 20% per annum during the 1950's and 1960's. Japan had established, for rational security and other reasons, a domestic

Jan 1, 1985

By D. Symonds, A. J. Richins, M. G. Nelson

Mining activities at Kennecott and Park City are similar in that both districts began operation in the last half of the 18th century, and both operated on a large scale for many years. However, they are different for two important reasons. First, the mines in the Park City district were always underground. The city of Park City was above many of those mine workings. It remained in place after mining activity stopped, and as the town became an up-scale ski resort, property values increased and the tailings dumps became desirable building sites. In contrast, Kennecott eventually became an open pit mine, and the growing pit effectively consumed many of the small towns that had grown up around the underground workings. Even towns on the periphery of the open pit were razed to allow for the disposal of mine overburden. Second, almost all mining activity stopped in Park City in the early 1970s, just as the first rigorous environmental legislation in the United States was enacted. (The Ontario mine operated sporadically until 1982.) Many mine structures, waste dumps, tailings ponds and piles, and tunnels were simply abandoned as the mining companies ceased business or were bought out. Kennecott, on the other hand, has been in continuous operation for more than 120 years, so a closure plan hasn’t been finalized. Nonetheless, environmental and social problems have arisen, and the company has had to address them.

Mar 2, 2022

By A. Nieto

This article is a review of previous discussions about underground mining method selection and classification with the purpose to clearly define and classify the two groups of variables (indicators) involved in the mining selection process: key deposit indicators (KDIs) and key mining method indicators (KMIs). This paper provides a simple and clear approach for the classification and selection of a feasible underground mining method based on a predetermined set of favorable deposit characteristics, which are defined as key deposit indictors (KDIs). This article also gives a summary of the key advantages and disadvantages associated with every underground mining method based on their key mining indicators (KMIs). The selection method given in this paper is based on defining field KDIs and comparing them to the KDIs that are favorable to every considered mining method. By cross validating a matrix of favorable KDIs, the paper presents a simple approach to rank several underground mining methods using a scale from favorable to less favorable accordingly to the ore deposit characteristics (KDIs). KMIs are used to further complement KDI rankings by analyzing every method’s KMI performance based on the expected productivity of the mining operation being considered. To further assist the reader through the selection process, this paper gives basic sketches representing each of the primary underground mining methods discussed in this paper. Each method is given using the same 3D isometric view as spatial reference to assist the reader with visual interpretation and comparison between methods.

Jan 1, 2010

By D. T. Randall, H. W. Weeks

The burning of coal without smoke is a problem that concerns the Government directly because of the advantages of smokeless combustion both in public buildings and on naval vessels. In addition, smoke abatement is a factor in conserving the fuel resources of the United States. Hence, as part of its general investigation of the best methods of utilizing the coals of this country, the Bureau of Mines, which is in charge of the fuel-testing work formerly carried on by the United States Geological Survey, has made extended tests to determine the conditions necessary for the smokeless combustion of bituminous coal in boiler furnaces. Bulletin 39,a a preliminary report, treats the smoke problem from a theoretical point of view, detailing the steps that are being taken by . municipalities, manufacturers, and citizens to abate smoke, also showing the possibility of a clean city. The present bulletin not only shows that bituminous coals high in volatile matter can be burned without smoke, but also that large plants carrying loads that fluctuate widely, where boilers over banked fires must be put into service quickly and fires forced to the capacity of their units, can be operated without producing smoke that is objectionable. Proper equipment, efficient labor, and intelligent supervision are the necessary factors.

Jan 1, 1912

By E. Wraith, W. W. Culver, B. Wesstrom, P. J. Mackey

Electrodeposited copper of the 1860s was of unprecedented purity, although the profound significance of this achievement was not fully realised until the dawn of the electrical age a decade or so later. By the 1870s there were three somewhat large (4 to 4.5 tonnes Cu/day) electrolytic copper refineries in Germany based on J. B. Elkington’s process, first patented in the United Kingdom in 1865. More such refineries were planned throughout Europe. At the same time, copper output in the U.S.A. was starting to expand and with the spread of European electrolytic copper refining technology across the Atlantic, the door opened to major increases in North American output. The technology was first taken up in 1879 by James Douglas at the Chemical Copper Company in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, where he was Superintendent. Douglas was assisted in this pioneering work by Edward Weston. The copper refinery at the Chemical Copper Company was small, not unlike the first plants in Europe. The present authors contend that the electrolytic copper refinery at the Chemical Copper should be regarded as the first copper refinery in the United States. The Balbach Copper Refinery in New Jersey, which commenced operations in 1883 with an initial production of about 2 tonnes Cu/day, has been erroneously considered as the “first commercial refinery”; it rightly belongs in second place. The early developments at these plants are discussed in this paper. INTRODUCTION In the mid-1800s, the main uses for copper were as sheathing on the wooden sailing ships of the day to protect from marine growth, boiler components in locomotives and steam engines, along with some construction uses. Copper ores were generally smelted, and further fire-refined for market. The recovery of gold and silver, if present in payable amounts, was a slow and relatively expensive step. This situation regarding copper would change by the 1870s with advances in the generation and use of electricity. The introduction of the dynamo led to major developments in electrorefining. First demonstrated in principle by Faraday in 1831 (Faraday, 1832), the dynamo was subsequently adapted and further developed by J.S. Woolrich for electro-metallurgical applications in 1842 (Woolrich, 1842; Napier, 1845). It provided a new source of power with the unprecedented potential to significantly change the scale of metal production by electrometallurgy. Interestingly enough, copper would be needed for the electrical age just beginning. By 1869, advances in dynamo design offered relatively reliable large machines, which enabled J. B. Elkington in the United Kingdom to use the dynamo in the radically new Pembrey copper electrorefinery — the first copper electrorefinery in the world (Wraith, 2013). Initial production at Pembrey was small — in the range of 1 to 2 tonnes/day — while gold and silver were recovered more readily by the treatment of the slimes than with methods used hitherto.

Jan 1, 2019

By Charles W. Merrill

The U .S. Treasury stocks of silver have been reduced at such a rapid rate to meet industrial and coinage requirements that they face exhaustion in 3 or 4 years. Alleviation of the silver problem will require increasing supply or reducing demand. This paper examines possible long-range resource development and research programs and improved secondary recovery. The possible reduction or elimination of silver in coinage and development and introduction of substitutes in the arts and industry are also discussed.

Jan 1, 1965

By John E. Hamak

The identified helium resources of the United States were estimated by the U.S. Bureau of Mines at 617 Bcf, as of December 31, 1992. This includes 285 Bef of demonstrated reserves, 85 Bcf of demonstrated marginal reserves, and 37 Bcf of demonstrated sub-economic resources. The identified resources also include 166 Bcf of helium in inferred reserves and inferred marginal reserves and 44 Bcf in inferred sub-economic resources. The identified helium resources contained on Federal lands are approximately 172 Bcf, including 32 Bcf in underground storage in the Cliffside Gasfield near Amarillo, TX. Undiscovered helium resources in the United States are estimated at a most likely volume of 104 Bef, with a maximum volume of 249 Bcf and a minimum volume of 41 Bef. Also reported are 51 Bcf of helium in nonconventional and low-helium-content natural gases. Extraction of helium in the United States occurs mostly from natural gases produced from the Hugoton gas area in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and the Riley Ridge area in southwest Wyoming. Helium extracted from natural gas in the United States in 1992 was 3.3 Bcf. Some shortfalls in helium supply may occur in about 5 to 10 years.

Jan 1, 1995

By E. Ozberk

The copper and nickel smelting industries are important contributors to the technical and economic well-being of Canada while some of the smelters are among the largest sources of sulphur dioxide emissions in Canada. A review of the operations in six smelters - Falconbridge Limited, Falconbridge, Ontario; Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co. Limited, Flin Flon, Manitoba; Inco Limited, Copper Cliff, Ontario and Thompson, Manitoba; Noranda Mines Limited, Horne Division, Noranda, Quebec and Gaspe Mines Division, Murdochville, Quebec - have shown that about 80% of the total sulphur input to these smelters was emitted to the atmosphere in 1980. A simultaneous review of the existing and emerging technologies which can directly or indirectly reduce the sulphur dioxide emissions indicated that it is possible to reduce the emissions to below 20% of the sulphur input to these smelters. This can be achieved by varying degrees of modifications to the smelting operations and installing sulphur fixation facilities at significant costs which may increase the metal production costs. This would consequently make the competitiveness of the Canadian copper and nickel producers more difficult in the already tough world metals market.

Jan 1, 1983

By M. Hermanus, N. Coulson, N. Pillay

"SynopsisThis paper assesses the effectiveness of the Mine Occupational Health and Safety Leading Practice Adoption System (MOSH) and its potential to improve mine health and safety in South African mines. Developed by the Chamber of Mines, which represents the majority of the country's large scale mining employers, MOSH was devised to accelerate progress towards achieving health and safety milestones, which were set by tripartite agreement in 2003. The paper documents and builds on the findings of a study conducted by the Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI) in 2011 that evaluated MOSH strategy, structures, and process of implementation.The study found that MOSH operated across the mining sector, was directed and dominated by experts and, despite best efforts to include other stakeholders, was led by employers. Statutory worker health and safety representatives and structures were not integrated into the complex change process developed by MOSH. The Mine Health and Safety Inspectorate (MHSI) and organized labour were ambivalent about direct involvement in MOSH and preferred regulatory measures to enforce the participation of mines. MOSH interventions were not targeted at mines with a poor health and safety record, and MOSH lacked a baseline from which to track impacts on sector-wide health and safety performance. The leading practices most widely adopted by mines were designed to improve, rather than fundamentally alter, existing practice. Although the depth of engagement with MOSH among stakeholders and on mine sites varied, mining companies, labour representatives, and the Mine Health and Safety Inspectorate (MHSI) saw the programme as significant.IntroductionIn 2011, the Chamber of Mines commissioned the Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI) to evaluate the progress and effectiveness of the rollout of the Mine Occupational Health and Safety Leading Practice Adoption System (MOSH). CSMI, based in the School of Mining Engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand, is an independent research centre conducting health and safety research relevant to all major stakeholders in the mining sector. The purpose of the evaluation was to identify the factors that enabled or hampered the adoption of new technologies or practices. The timing of the evaluation, two years before the deadline for the 2013 safety and health milestones, allowed time for adjustments to be made. This paper summarizes the results of the evaluation and includes further analysis and discussion of the nature of the programme and the conditions that act to advance it or it hold back."

Jan 1, 2015

By M. D. Marshall

A remote heat-activated stench gas/tracer gas mine alarm system was developed to reduce the time between fire detection and personnel notification. The stench gas/ tracer gas system contains ethyl mercaptan for personnel warning and a fluorocarbon for tracer gas detection by instrumentation. A system was also developed which can be interfaced with multiplex mine phones. In-mine tests were conducted and several systems are presently installed in a hard rock mine.

Jan 1, 1983

By Donald J. Reining

The California Surface Mining and Reclamation Act (SMARA) is the nation's first legislation establishing a statewide mineral resource policy governing mining activities that recognizes regional needs and retains local autonomy. The Southern California Rock Products Association supported this proposed legislation. It was through our efforts that SMARA was passed in 1975. The local planning and zoning processes, which are so critical to the mining industry, have been significantly improved with implementation of SMARA. Recognition of the importance of the mining industry is now being developed by the State Mining and Geology Board and the California Division of Mines and Geology (CDMG).

Jan 1, 1984

By M. Javier

"The impact of mine closure is perceived through a veil of compliance to human laws and regulations rather than the laws and equilibrium of nature. This perception motivates present research. Understanding the causes and effects of mine closure defines levels of responsibility. This understanding evolves from mine closure's legacy. Mine closure is characterized in perpetuity by three aspects: Future liabilities; level of technologies for extraction and, usage of mineral resources. These aspects must be updated to a rationally appropriate level. This paper will address the following questions: Will the minerals remaining in the process of mine closure ever be recovered? Will the mine closure inhibit the availability of minerals for the next generation? How many mines are designed to perform a successful mine closure? Do we close the mines or do we close nature? Is it responsible to continue mine closures as we do them today? Is mine closure a complement of mine operations or a contradiction of mining? Do we need to perform mine closures, yet? This paper reviews mine closure practices and principles with the level of responsibility to nature and for the next generation.PREFACE The planet has irreversible issues to deal with regarding the depletion of mineral resources and contamination occurring from human activities. The population increased exponentially to more than seven billion, this high population with its lifestyles, demands a higher supply of minerals. In spite of these conditions, mining is a vital industry to keep ""civilization"" in society. This is evidenced by what we see around us, in that everything ""made"" in society is directly or indirectly due to mining. Hence, mining cannot be avoided or ignored. Society misunderstands the importance of mining in relation to other activities. At this time, mining is fragmented and economically oriented to supply cheap minerals to a market with peculiar characteristics regarding products that could be designed for recycling and stimulate nature’s equilibrium. These issues add important “variable factors” to the equation, when they are considered as parameters for the next generation. It also raises many questions regarding principles and attitudes about morals and ethics exercised in all anthropogenic activities. The industry's practices have many flourishing paradigms which are subject to a variety of criticisms and observations. Some of these observations will be described in this paper. It is important to clarify in advance a ""normal disclaimer"" about the ""apparent contradiction"" that could take place in the writer's comprehension when we abruptly ""jump to conclusions"". We must remember that we are profiling the future in an arena that demands a better understanding of solutions to problems created by actual mining."

Jan 1, 2015

By T. Grewar

"South Africa is a water-scarce country, rated as one of the 30 driest countries in the world. Worryingly, government expects water demand to outstrip supply as early as 2025. The South African government believes that substantial volumes of water can be made available through the reuse of treated mining-impacted water. Currently, however, large volumes of treated mining-impacted water are produced, often with no end use in mind other than discharge or disposal, when these treated effluents may have further uses in applications which are currently and unnecessarily using high-quality water. Treating the wastewaters to levels that meet ’fitness-for-use’ guidelines for alternative applications such as agriculture, sanitation, or industrial processes will reduce the treatment cost burden compared to potable water production. The primary conclusion of this review is that the most suitable option for re-using treated mine-impacted water is in agriculture, for irrigation of crops (food, forage, or energy crops), which currently and unnecessarily makes use of the majority of South Africa’s high-quality resources or potable water. Other findings include the realization that although guidelines and legislation for water re-use in South Africa exist and are readily available, they tend to be contradictory and confusing in many cases. It is imperative that these ambiguities and incongruities in the available guidelines and legislation for water re-use be clarified and updated swiftly IntroductionSouth Africa is a water-scarce country and is currently rated as one of the 30 driest countries in the world, with an average rainfall of 490 mm/a, approximately half of the global average. As an indicator of the degree of regional variability in South Africa’s water supply, it has been shown that 70% of all runoff is from approximately 20% of the land area. Regardless of the water scarcity faced in South Africa, our water conservation track record is poor, with an average consumption of 280 L/d per person, almost 60% more than the global average of 175 L/d per person. Around 40% of this allocation is utilized in watering lawns and gardens (Zhuwakinyu, 2017).The South African government predicts water demand to outstrip supply as early as 2025. On an international scale, the situation appears just as dire, with the United Nations High Level Panel on Water (HLPW) expecting a 40% water shortfall by 2030, which may affect up to 1.8 billion people based on current water demand trajectories (Zhuwakinyu, 2017)."

Mar 1, 2019