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By Y. H. Wang

During the last two decades many research projects were conducted to study the load requirements for the powered supported longwall faces (1-6). Significant results had been achieved by these researches. Most of the previous studies were rarely designed to understand the mechanisms of interaction between the supports and the surrounding rock, or to correlate the stress conditions around longwall faces to the mining operations both in time and space. In case of the shield supported faces, the roof-to-floor convergence is very difficult to measure due to the high percentage of roof coverage. The external load on the supports can not be determined from the leg pressure data alone due to the existence of the lemniscate links. Therefore, there is a real need in that a simple engineering method be developed to monitor the variations of roof load on the shield supports, the roof-to-floor convergence and the roof stress restoration in the gob area as the mining proceeds. Only with the results of these measurements, a further understanding about the mechanisms of interaction between the supports and the surrounding rock can be achieved and a criterion of designing or selecting the optimum mechanical parameters of the shield supports can finally be developed.

Jan 1, 1986

By Joseph T. Coe, Siavash Mahvelati, Philip Asabere

Characterization of existing foundations remains an important issue as foundation reuse and rehabilitation continue to garner increased attention. In the case of unknown foundations, geophysical and nondestructive testing (NDT) methods have been utilized in the past to evaluate foundation geometry and could serve as useful tools in the case of foundation reuse. A comprehensive study was initiated in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s that evaluated the effectiveness of the available geophysical and NDT technologies to characterize unknown foundations for scour evaluation purposes. At the time of that study, the Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) geophysical method was in its infancy and not widely used. Since then, MASW has become increasingly prevalent in geotechnical applications as the method presents a number of potential advantages when characterizing the subsurface, including rapid testing, increased signal to noise ratio, and ability to resolve velocity inversions. This paper presents a case study that explores the abilities of MASW as an unknown foundation characterization tool. MASW was applied to determine subsurface stiffness at a bridge foundation site in the Philadelphia metropolitan area. One MASW survey line was performed immediately over the foundation of interest and another was performed over a control zone adjacent to the foundation to establish a baseline site profile. The purpose of this testing was to examine whether MASW could establish the geometry of the foundation at this site. This paper presents the site conditions and MASW testing procedures, followed by a discussion of data analysis and interpretation.

Jan 1, 2016

By Ihsan Berk Tulu, Michael Sloan, Ted Klemetti, Michael M. Murphy, Gabriel S. Esterhuizen, Jame Sumner

"In this paper, the advantage of using numerical models with the strength reduction method (SRM) to evaluate entry stability in complex multiple-seam conditions is demonstrated. A coal mine under variable topography from the central Appalachian region is used as a case study. At this mine, unexpected roof conditions were encountered during development below previously mined panels. Stress mapping and observation of ground conditions were used to quantify the success of entry support systems in three room-andpillar panels. Numerical model analyses were initially conducted to estimate the stresses induced by the multiple-seam mining at the locations of the affected entries. The SRM was used to quantify the stability factor of the supported roof of the entries at selected locations. The SRM-calculated stability factors were compared with observations made during the site visits, and the results demonstrate that the SRM adequately identifies the unexpected roof conditions in this complex case. It is concluded that the SRM can be used to effectively evaluate the likely success of roof supports and the stability condition of entries in coal mines.INTRODUCTIONSince the introduction of roof bolts in the coal mines during the late 1940s and 1950s, roof bolts promised to dramatically reduce roof fall accidents (Mark, 2002). However, ground falls still remain a significant factor in underground coal mine injuries and fatalities. In 2013, ground falls accounted for 4 of the 14 fatalities and 166 of the 1577 reported lost-time injuries in underground coal mines (MSHA, 2015).The design of appropriate support systems requires the understanding of: 1) the variable nature of the rock mass, 2) the performance and characteristics of the roof support, 3) the interaction between the rock mass and the installed support system, and 4) the in-situ and mine-induced stress distribution around the excavation. Over the past 25 years, multiple design approaches have been used in coal mine ground control. The approaches include empirical mechanistic methods, empirical statistical analysis, rules of thumb, and numerical methods (Hebblewhite 2006). In the U.S., Analysis of Roof Bolt Systems (ARBS) can be given as an example of an empirical method. ARBS uses relatively simple equations to calculate the intensity of support provided by a roof bolt system and compares it with a suggested ARBS value (Mark et al., 2001). The suggested ARBS design equation is derived from an analysis of 100 case histories. The ARBS design equation is dependent on two parameters: depth of cover and Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR). More recently, a probabilistic design approach was developed by Canbulat and van der Merwe (2009) in South Africa. In this method, the variability of the rock mass, the mining geometry, and support characteristics are included in the analytical models. The major advantages of these two methods are: 1) they can be applied rapidly and easily, 2) complex rock mass/ roof support interaction mechanisms are represented with simple equations, and 3) they are supported by large databases. However, both methods generally ignore mining-induced stress distribution, details of the roof support system, details of the geological setting, and the interaction between the support system and the rock mass."

Jan 1, 2015

By Tamara Whitaker, James Gunderson, Ruilin Yang

This paper presents the results of a vibration control project conducted in soft overburden at a surface coal mine located in the western United States. The study uses near-field blast vibration monitoring, analysis and modeling techniques developed in house. Accelerometer-equipped seismographs were utilized for near-field vibration monitoring and analysis. Vibration control was achieved through field data regression as well as vibration modeling using the multiple seed near-field blast vibration model (Yang and Scovira, 2007). The regression was conducted between peak particle vibration parameters and the minimum scaled distance per delay. From the regression analysis, the curves of upper bounds for peak particle vibration parameters and charge weight were developed. The dominant frequencies of the blast vibration were also addressed in this project. The regression curves and near-field vibration model guided the blast design to control blast vibration for maximizing the recovery of coal and maintaining mine productivity.

Jan 1, 2008

By Jung-Hoon Ryu, Chang-Ha Ryu, Byung Hee Choi, Yang-Kyun Kim

Control of overbreak in tunnel blasting is one of the key factors affecting the construction expenses as well as safety. Overbreak causes an increase in the cost of construction by requiring an additional amount of shotcrete. In addition, blast damage to the final rock face may cause instability and rock fall hazards. For these reasons, controlled blasting is an indispensable routine in tunnel excavation in order to get a smooth face and to reduce damage to the final wall. We have experienced a very poor quality of excavation depending on the tunneling sites although a similar design of controlled blasting technique was applied. Field experiments over 40 rounds were carried out to investigate the cause of the poor results in tunnel blasting. In this paper, discussed are the parameters affecting the overbreak and some findings from the field experiments. Overbreak could be controlled considerably by adjusting some parameters before the efforts of developing a new blasting method.

Jan 1, 2004

By S. T. Kok

This paper presents a case study in West Malaysia for passive piles failure in very soft marine clay in open excavation. In this particular case, the thickness of the very soft marine clay ranges from 5 m to 7 m (16 ft to 23 ft) from the ground surface. Preliminary site investigation reported SPT ?N? value of zero for the very soft marine clay. The design was based on a deep foundation utilizing driven piles to support the superstructure. During pile cap construction, the piles were subjected to uncontrolled open excavation, inducing bending moment in the piles, resulting in some cracked and broken piles. Analyses were carried out using an existing three-dimensional finite element code with a non-linear soil model to predict the response of these piles during excavation. Finally, the predictions of pile responses during excavation were compared satisfactorily with the observed results.

Jan 1, 2009

By Luis-Fernando Contreras, Juliano Maran, Richard LeSueur

A risk study was carried out at the Cerrejon coal mine in order to assess the impacts of pit slope failure in terms of safety of personnel and destruction of equipment with economic consequences. Results of the assessment enabled the definition of risk treatment requirements and the identification of key aspects to consider in a risk treatment plan. The approach included the following tasks: (1) Assessment of the total probability of failure (POF) representative of the stability conditions of typical footwall and highwall slopes. For this purpose, stability analyses were carried out to define the Design POF, which accounts for the variability of strength parameters and represents the normal conditions considered for slope design. Strength parameters for highwall slope analysis were derived from borehole data obtained with a geotechnical drilling campaign. The Total POF was estimated through the use of Source Response Diagrams (SRD) in order to incorporate other sources of uncertainty not accounted for, like changes in geometry, variability of rock conditions due to geological or operational factors, changes in groundwater conditions and occurrence of seismic events. (2) Assessment of the consequences of footwall and highwall slope failure on safety of personnel. The assessment was performed through the use of event tree analysis to establish the probability of fatality caused by slope failures, from the Total POF defined in the previous task. This analysis required the evaluation of personal exposure to slope failures. Also, the assessment included benchmarking of acceptability criteria in terms of probability of fatality and the evaluation of options of risk mitigation to comply with these criteria. (3) Assessment of the consequences of footwall and highwall slope failure in terms of economic losses associated with impact on equipment. The analysis included the evaluation of equipment exposure to slope failures, and it was performed through event tree analysis to establish the probability of an economic loss associated to total or partial lost of equipment, from the total POF value defined in the first task. The magnitude of the economic losses was estimated from the costs of damaged equipment, lost production and site restoration. Options of risk mitigation were also examined in terms of economic losses. The risk assessment process applied to the Cerrejón mine showed how the system can be applied to evaluate the consequences of failure in terms of personnel safety and economics and to identify the more adequate risk mitigation options. The system can be an extremely powerful tool in the mine design process and provides the opportunity to rationalize the geotechnical information requirements, once the risk criteria have been defined by management. The main purpose of this paper is to present the process; therefore, the emphasis has been put on the methodology followed rather than on the actual results obtained.

Jan 1, 2006

By Fred C. Turin, Kim M. Cornelius

Work in underground coal mines is repetitive and physically demanding. Workers commonly report a wide range of aches and pains. Management at one mine was concerned about increased reporting of aches and pains by roof bolting machine operators. An analysis of roof bolting tasks was conducted at this mine to identify early warning signs of cumulative trauma. Health and safety risk factors were identified and recommendations to reduce cumulative trauma exposure were provided. Recommendations addressed job procedures, equipment design, and worker awareness of risk factors.

By K. E. Niermeyer, J. A. Bratt, B. A. Fahm, B. A. Kennedy

The instrumentation, monitoring, and prediction of a major slope failure at the Chuquicamata mine are described. In December 1967, preexisting tension cracks on the south end of the east wall of the mine began to open. Various forms of instru¬mentation were installed for continuous monitoring. These systems included tension crack stakes, crack extensometers, linear extensometers, tape and transit lines, sliding wire contacts, and a seismograph. From the information obtained, the failure date was accurately predicted some five weeks before failure, enabling the mine to reroute truck and rail access; hence, causing a minimal mine shutdown of 21/2 days and preventing any injuries to person or damage to equipment. The shape and form of the sliding mass are analyzed, as are possible modes of failure.

Jan 1, 1972

By B. A. Kennedy

The instrumentation, monitoring, and prediction of a major slope failure at the Chuquicamata mine are described. In December 1967, pre-existing tension cracks on the south end of the east wall of the Chquicamata mine began to open. Various forms of instrumentation were installed for continuous monitoring. These systems included tension crack stakes, crack extensometers, linear extensometers, tape and transit lines, sliding wire contacts, and a seismograph. From the information obtained, the failure date was accurately predicted some five weeks before failure, enabling the mine to reroute truck and rail access; hence, causing a minimal mine shutdown of two and one-half days and preventing any injuries to persons or damage to equipment. The shape and form of the sliding mass are analyzed, as are the possible modes of failure.

Jan 1, 1970

By A. Pandey

Over the years, Coal Beneficiation at Tata Steel - West Bokaro has seen varied changes. With increasing R.O.M throughputs & lowering of the concentrate ash, Fine Coal Beneficiation process has thrown up myriad challenges. Development of Synthetic Collector was initiated couple of years back with Technical assistance from NLC Nalco India Ltd. Coal from West Bokaro unit was sent to Nalco?s Naperville (US) research lab for developing Tailor made synthetic collector . After comprehensive lab flotation studies, synthetic collector was developed & recommended for plant evaluation. The lab scale results were very promising in terms of improved separation efficiency & yield at similar ash level. The collector sample received from Nalco research laboratory were revalidated at Nalco Kolkata lab and finally at Tata Steel West Bokaro lab, confirming the promising results. (S.E 25-30 % better than HS Diesel) The key factors playing out for this improvement initiative are a) Scope for improvement in Clean Coal Yield at same or lower ash level coupled with improved Selectivity and Separation Efficiency b) Introduction of a Synthetic Collector with a Green Chemistry and subsequent replacement of H S Diesel, which is highly inflammable with a less inflammable & safer product Trial was conducted at plant scale in two phases and comparative performance of the Collector vis-à-vis Diesel was evaluated across the following Coal Seams of Q- SE (Seam VII, VIII, VI, IX and X). The results generated are very promising and the improvements observed are summarized below. ? Separation efficiency improvement by more than 20% observed. ? Flotation Fines yield increase varied from 0.6- 1.5 % on raw coal basis across different seams. ? Consumption pattern is 20-25 % lower than Diesel. Keywords: synthetic collector, west bokaro, coal beneficiation, HSD

Sep 1, 2012

By R Valenta

Most developing projects face a range of technical and non-technical challenges, and examination of development histories can potentially provide insights into improved approaches to project development. The Kestanelik project in the Canakkale region of Western Turkey was acquired by Chesser Resources Ltd in 2008. Turkey is a significant and growing source of gold production, with sector participation by both domestic and international companies. While the broad ranges of challenges faced by developing projects is well known, there are relatively few case studies in which the range of technical, environmental, social and governance challenges are presented in a single contribution. Recent studies of undeveloped complex orebodies have particularly shown the extent to which environment, social and governance (ESG) complexities contribute to project delays and failures. The Kestanelik project faced a full range of technical and ESG complexities, and provides an illustrative example of the associated challenges. CITATION: Valenta, R, 2018. A case study of technical, social and environmental challenges for a gold project development in Western Turkey, in Proceedings Complex Orebodies Conference 2018, pp 73–74 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 21, 2018

By M Binks

This paper presents a case study that describes the selection, development, engineering and construction of a process plant for the biological oxidative pre-treatment of a refractory pyrite-arsenopyrite gold ore flotation concentrate. Prefeasibility and feasibility study resource modeling, metallurgical testwork, and environmental and engineering studies are outlined. Options considered for oxidation of the ore, which examine cost, risk, operability, recovery, engineering and environmental aspects are compared, with particular reference to pressure and biological oxidation. The BIOX« biological oxidation process was selected as the preferred oxidation process and the flow sheet for this process is presented. Selection of the BOIX« process resulted in special requirements for the feed preparation circuit, residue treatment and disposal, materials of construction and engineering. Use of a biological process in ore treatment also introduces particular process and engineering risks the management of which are discussed.

Jan 1, 2004

By D. J. Rose

The San Miguel Mine is owned by San Miguel Electrical Cooperative, Inc. and operated by Atascosa Mining Company, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Morrison-Knudsen Company, Inc. This multiseam, single-zone lignite surface mine is located near Jourdanton, Texas, 110 kilometers (68 miles) south of San Antonio. Lignite extracted from four closely-spaced seams is used to fuel the 400-MW San Miguel Power Plant. Recovery depths range from 7 to 37 meters (25 to 120 feet). The mine began stripping operations in the spring of 1980 and now produces approximately 2.5 million tonnes (2.8 million tons) of lignite annually. Atascosa Mining Company is responsible for production, maintenance, engineering, and management services. Production responsibilities include topsoil removal, overburden removal, lignite mining, spoil pile regrading and topsoil replacement, as well as ash disposal and construction and maintenance of water retention and diversion facilities.

Jan 1, 1984

By Ihsan Berk Tulu, Mark Van Dyke, Ted Klemetti, Deniz Tuncay

"Longwall abutment loads are influenced by several factors, including depth of cover, pillar sizes, panel dimensions, geological setting, mining height, proximity to gob, intersection type, and size of the gob. How does proximity to the gob affect pillar loading and entry condition? Does the gob influence depend on whether the abutment load is a forward, side, or rear loading? Do non-typical bleeder entry systems follow the traditional front and side abutment loading and extent concepts? If not, will an improved understanding of the combined abutment extent warrant a change in pillar design or standing support in bleeder entries?This paper details observations made in the non-typical bleeder entries of a moderate depth longwall panel; specifically, it explores data collected from borehole pressure cells and roof extensometers, observations of the conditions of the entries, and numerical modeling of the bleeder entries during longwall extraction. The primary focus was the extent and magnitude of the abutment loading experienced due to the extraction of the longwall panels. Due to the layout of the longwall panels and bleeder entries, the borehole pressure cells (BPCs) and roof extensometers did not show much change due to the advancing of the first longwall. However, they did show a noticeable increase due to the second longwall advancement, a maximum of about 4 MPa of pressure increase and 5 mm of roof deformation. The observations of the conditions showed little to no change from before the first longwall panel extraction began to when the second longwall panel had been advanced more than 915 meters. Localized pillar spalling was observed on the corners of the pillars closest to the longwall gob as was an increase in water in the entries. In addition to the observations and instrumentation, numerical modeling was performed to validate modeling procedures against the monitoring results and evaluate the bleeder design. ITASCA Consulting Group’s FLAC3D numerical modeling software was used to evaluate the bleeder entries. The results of the models indicated only a minor increase in load during the extraction of the longwall panels. These models showed a much greater increase in stress due to the development of the gateroad and bleeder entries—about 80% development and 20% longwall extraction. The FLAC3D model showed very good correlation between modeled and expected gateroad loading during panel extraction. The front and side abutment extent modeled was very similar to observations from this and previous panels."

Jan 1, 2019

By H. W. Schreiber, G. R. Castle

INTRODUCTION The small mining company faces the dilemma of how to finance the development of its properties. Many of these small companies don't have the financial resources to pay for development costs from their own funds and frequently they do not even have the financial strength to permit them to borrow the money needed for development. A project financing can sometimes be arranged in such a way as to solve this dilemma. A typical project financing will not provide the answer to the "little guy's" problem because most project financings require that the sponsors of the project provide completion undertakings and sometimes other undertakings. These undertakings are often a prerequisite to obtaining financing, and if the sponsor is not financially strong enough to provide the comfort that the lenders require, then the sponsor will have difficulty obtaining financing no matter what undertakings are offered. However, with a little imagination and the right set of circumstances, a project financing can sometimes provide the solution to the small mining company's problem. The Strathcona Sound Project is unusually suited as a case study because the sponsor, Mineral Resources International Limited,(MRI) was able to arrange a project financing for the development of the project even though the lenders probably would not have been willing to loan a similar amount of money direct to MRI based on the full faith and credit of MRI's balance sheet. The way that MRI was able to arrange this financing makes for an interesting story. THE CASE In early 1974, MRI owned 100% of a small to medium sized zinc - lead - silver massive sulfide deposit (Property) located 475 miles north of the Arctic Circle less than two miles from deep water on Strathcona Sound which is a shipping zone in the Canadian Arctic. The Property was situated at a desolate location except for an Eskimo settlement (Arctic Bay) which was about 20 miles west of the Property. In other words, the project required that complete infrastructure would need to be installed in this far northern location. Independent reserve and feasibility studies (Study) had been completed on the Property which confirmed a total of 6,825,000 tons of reserves classified and summarized as shown below on Table I: [ ] These reserves were based on 229 diamond drill holes totalling 58,909 feet and were established on a cut-off grade of 7% zinc and a minimum mining height of seven feet. The overall mining recovery rate was estimated at not less than 85% and not more than 90%. The feasibility study indicated that it would cost an estimated $45,044,000 to develop an underground mine, a concentrator, a town-site, a power plant, storage facility, loading dock, a tailings disposal area and an airstrip on the Property with an annual capacity of 525,000 tons of ore per year. The construction period was expected to take two years and projected capital costs were broken down as set forth below on Table II:

Jan 1, 1985

By Yao S, Wang P, Zhang C

The Zhilingtou Au-Ag deposit is situated in the eastern part of the complexly deformed and metamorphosed South China Caledonian Fold Belt. It consists of seven orebodies that are almost exclusively hosted by biotite plagioclase gneiss of the Precambrian Chencai Group. They form an apparent en echelon pattern in both cross-section and level plan. Three different ore types, based on mineralization textures, have been recognized within the Zhilingtou lode. These are Au-Ag-rich quartz veins, Au and Ag-bearing silicified rocks and Au-Ag-containing altered rocks with quartz stockworks. The mineralization is principally composed of electrum, argentite, pyrite and minor sphalerite, galena as well as traces of hessite and chalcopyrite plus a gangue assemblage of quartz, rhodonite, sericite and chlorite. Fluid inclusions related to Au-Ag mineralization yield a wide range of homogenization temperatures from 110 to 447¦C, with two distinctive peak values at 250-300¦C and 350-400¦C respectively. S30Si values of quartz veins and silicification from the three stages of mineralization range from -0.1 to -0.4%o. The mineralization at Zhilingtou is interpreted as forming by recirculated meteoric water extracting ore-forming elements from metamorphic rocks due to Mesozoic volcano-magmatic activity.

Jan 1, 1995

By C Zhang, P Wang, S Yao

The Zhilingtou Au-Ag deposit is situated in the eastern part of the complexly deformed and metamorphosed South China Caledonian Fold Belt. It consists of seven orebodies that are almost exclusively hosted by biotite plagioclase gneiss of the Precambrian Chencai Group. They form an apparent en echelon pattern in both cross-section and level plan. Three different ore types, based on mineralization textures, have been recognised within the Zhilingtou lode. These are Au-Ag-rich quartz veins, Au and Ag-bearing silicified rocks and Au-Ag-containing altered rocks with quartz stockworks. The mineralisation is principally composed of electrum, argentite, pyrite and minor sphalerite, galena as well as traces of hessite and chalcopyrite plus a gangue assemblage of quartz, rhodonite, sericite and chlorite. Fluid inclusions related to Au-Ag mineralisation yield a wide range of homogenisation temperatures from 110 to 447¦C, with two distinctive peak values at 250 - 300¦C and 350 - 400¦C respectively. d30Si values of quartz veins and silicification from the three stages of mineralisation range from -0.1 to -0.4ë. The mineralisation at Zhilingtou is interpreted as forming by recirculated meteoric water extracting ore-forming elements from metamorphic rocks due to Mesozoic volcano-magmatic activity.

Jan 1, 1995

By Ihsan Berk Tulu

The complex interaction between multiple seam pillar extraction panels and variable topography can generate unexpected ground control problems. This case study describes stress-related damage in multiple seam workings that resulted in difficult operating conditions and compromised the safety of the support crews. The damage appeared to be caused by horizontal stress but the unexpected location of the damage baffled the authors. A 2D Finite element analysis was conducted of the mine layout and surface topography in an attempt to explain the observed failure. It was discovered that the topography resulted in the rotation of the major stress at the location of the current workings. The stress rotation caused asymmetrical interactions between the workings on the different coal beds, which can explain the unexpected response observed in the mine. Consequently the layout of the next panel was changed by locating the vulnerable entry 30 ft away from its originally planned position. The new location was selected to locate the entry in favorable stress conditions. The change in layout resulted in a significant improvement in conditions when the next panel was mined. At the time of writing this paper, a full panel has been developed using the modified layout without undue ground control problems. The case study demonstrates that numerical models can help engineers to interpret and solve complex multi-seam interaction problems.

Jan 1, 2014

By J. S. Walker

Public Law 95-87 enacted by Congress in 1977 and subsequent regulations require coal mine operators to predict the effects of mining on the environment prior to the start of mining. Prediction of the effects of mining on the local groundwater system is a difficult task due to its complex nature and the lack of detailed published information. An investigation of water level fluctuations in five we1 1s positioned over three consecutively mined longwall panels was initiated in conjunction with an intensive subsidence monitoring program. The purpose of this work was to provide detailed information which could be used to predict certain hydrologic effects of longwall mining in the Northern Appalachian Coal Region. The results of this case study indicate that water level fluct- uations in the local ground-water system above longwall panels is associated with subsidence and that the static water level will generally re- establish at or near the pre-mining elevation after mining is completed.

Jan 1, 1986