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By C. C. Pretorius

3D seismic surveys have become a well-accepted method of imaging sub-surface geology in the Bushveld Basin. Because both the seismic sources and receivers are placed at surface, most surveys are limited to imaging faults with >=7 m throw. However, some areas such as shaft infrastructure can benefit from the ability to detect smaller structures prior to shaft sinking. Borehole radar and logs such as the acoustic televiewer can identify these structures in the shaft barrel, but not within -200 m from the shaft. Therefore, Anglo Platinum has developed the method of high-resolution 3D vertical seismic profiles (VSPs) for structural sterilization of shaft sites prior to shaft sinking. VSPs utilize a surface source and sub-surface receivers deployed down a borehole. This means that seismic energy goes through the near surface only once, and therefore suffers less frequency loss than when both source and receivers are on surface. Furthermore, VSPs can record 3 component (3C) data which comprises P wave, Sh (horizontal) and Sv (vertical) wavemodes. Because S waves travel at about 0.6 of the velocity of a P wave, shorter wavelengths and therefore higher resolutions are possible using S wave data. VSPs were first used in their one dimensional, zero offset, mode to correlate borehole geology with seismic stratigraphy within seismic surveys. This showed that VSPs record -30% higher frequencies than surface seismic surveys. The program then applied two dimensional VSPs to the problem of imaging geological structure close to a borehole. 2D VSPs confirmed that high frequency results could be achieved, and that this enabled a more accurate image of the Merensky Reef than could be achieved by surface seismic data. Finally, the program has achieved the successful recording and processing of 3D VSP data, with both compressional and shear wavemodes giving a high resolution structural result. Although P wave data gives -30% frequency improvement over surface seismic surveys, S wave data can give as much as 80% improvement, further improving the structural image achieved. The high fixed costs of VSP surveys mean that they should ideally be run in multi-client batches, which can reduce the per borehole cost by up to 50%. Their application is anticipated to be on high value capital infrastructure with a geological risk from faults which are not imaged by surface seismics-generally in the sub-7 m range. Keywords VSP, 3D seismic, bushveld, platinum, resolution, imaging, shear waves, shaft sinking.

Jan 1, 2011

By M. A. Marois

This paper proposes an improved temporal stability condition for the implementation of an inverse heat transfer method for predicting the time-varying bank thickness of the phase change protective bank inside a high temperature furnace. The direct problem is handled with the enthalpy method. The inverse method rests on the Adjoint Problem and the Conjugate Gradient Method. It is shown that the temporal stability condition for the inverse phase change problem relies on the time delay of the temperature measurements. Results indicate that this time delay is proportional to the heat diffusion time including heat diffusion through the mushy zone.

Jan 1, 2011

By D. Rahal

All ores have an economic optimum particle size (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). This optimum value is often a compromise between the need to achieve adequate liberation for the efficient separation and recovery of valuable minerals and the energy consumed by the crushing and grinding process. It has been recognized for nearly three decades that grinding is the most expensive and least efficient stage in mineral processing (El-shall and Somasundaran, 1984). At that time it was estimated that grinding consumed between 25 and 70% of the total power required in mineral processing. This recognition drove the development of new stirred mill fine grinding technology in the 1990s (Jankovic et.al, 2003; Enderle et. al., 1997; Massey, 2008). These milling technologies have a reduced energy consumption compared to traditional fine grinding using ball mills. In the ?coarser? fine grinding applications this improvement is approximately 30%. The benefits increase to above 50% in ultrafine grinding applications (Lichter and Davey, 2006). Despite these gains, the US Department of Energy reported that an additional energy savings of up to 37% is possible in the minerals industry. They identified continuing research and development and implementing best practices in both grinding and materials handling as the primary avenues for the additional reduction (BCS, 2007).

Jan 1, 2011

By Michel Ruel

"PID loops – also known as base layers or regulatory controls – form the foundation of any plant’s control layer and it is generally accepted that PID loop health has a direct impact on the plant’s bottom line. Keeping these thousands of control loops in good health has a direct impact on the plant’s bottom line: it reduces variability, improves quality and throughput, and decreases energy costs and raw material usage. This has been well proven and documented in many articles. In the last ten years, technology has evolved: control engineers can now keep track of control loop performance and link it to the root causes of variability. However, they lack industry-wide best practices and criteria for determining what can be considered as excellent, good, fair, or poor performance. To ensure that PID control loops continue to perform well and meet their objectives, control engineers need a combination of (a) an appropriate monitoring technology and (b) best practices for doing the maintenance of base layer controls.Most plants have limited resources and operate with an increasing number of constraints; therefore, using the right tools and including reports in daily workflow is key for success. This paper suggests roles and responsibilities of key players needed to work toward control performance best practices and discuss organisational changes to succeed.INTRODUCTIONAlthough PID controllers are reliable workhorses in the process industry, they are often underrated. Since the 1980’s, computer control has evolved and the control algorithms used by control engineers have become increasingly complex. However, PID controllers still handle over 90% of the control loops in operating plants. Table 1 shows the savings that can be realized by achieving best-practice in several different process control categories (Brisk, 2004). The savings are expressed as a percentage of production costs."

Jan 1, 2011

By Gary E. Sherman

Preliminary economic mining feasibility studies were conducted by the Bureau of Mines to estimate mining costs in the Juneau gold belt area of the Juneau Mining District, southeastern Alaska. Investigations were conducted on the economics of two mineral deposit types: (1.) Berners Bay vein gold deposits, and (2.) stockwork gold deposits containing gold, silver, and lead. Cost estimates were developed using the Bureau of Mines Cost Estimating System (CES). Discounted cash flow return on investment (DeFROI) was calculated using the Bureau's MINSIM computer program. Underground mining of a Berners Bay vein gold deposit was found to be economic (15 pct DCFROI) at a recoverable metal value of $353.67/mt for a 100 mtpd shrinkage stoping mine with a 10 yr mine life, $324.76/mt for a 20 yr mine life, $138.63/mt for a 500 mtpd longhole stoping mine with a 10 yr mine 1 ffe, and $127.50/mt for a 20 yr mine life. Block caving mining of a large stockwork gold deposit was found to be economic at a recoverable metal value of $15.28/mt for a 18,000 mtpd mine with a 20 yr mine life.

Jan 1, 2011

By L. Mercier, R. Narendrula, F. Desmarais, L. Amaratunga, A. Aledresse

Thiosulfate is recognized as a promising alternative lixiviant to cyanide for the extraction of gold from ore bodies. Gold thiosulfate ([Au(S2O3)2]2), however, is not well-adsorbed by activated charcoal, making industrial scale use of thiosulfate for gold leaching impractical at present. Because of their high specific surface areas (500-1000 m2g-1) and uniform open-framework nanoporosity (pore channel diameters in the range 3-10 nm), functionalized mesoporous silicas are widely recognized as highly effective materials for the selective, rapid and high capacity uptake of mercury, gold and platinum group ions. In the present work, the efficient and rapid adsorption of gold thiosulfate by thiol-functionalized mesoporous silica (hereafter designated MP-HMS) is demonstrated, whereby the thiol groups in the materials bind with the gold complexes by ligand displacement. The adsorbed gold could be leached out using cyanide, regenerating the adsorbent for further uptake cycles. Functionalized mesoporous silica is thus a promising candidate for the preconcentration of gold from thiosulfate leachate solutions.

Jan 1, 2011

By M. Rufli

Until not so long ago most ring geared mills were operated with fix speed motors only. By using the latest generation of medium voltage frequency converters, new possibilities have arisen to improve the grinding process. Beside all the direct and indirect advantages, several dedicated functions have now been implemented for ring geared grinding mills in the minerals industry. The sophisticated operational functions ensure a smooth, safe and reliable operation with minimum stress for the mechanical equipment and therefore utmost availability of the mill. Several papers have already been presented concerning the benefits of using this state of the art technology for mill drives. Now this paper is focusing on the experiences gained with this kind of sophisticated ring geared mill drive system rather than only show and explains the operational benefit of the different functions. Several measurements of different operating conditions, starting, frozen charge remover, controlled roll back, backlash, etc., made on an installed and commissioned 2 x 5 MW dual pinion ring geared mill drive system will be shown and discussed. The accuracy of the load sharing between the two 5 MW motors during starting, normal operation and stopping will be demonstrated using real measurements from an operating system. Finally the inherent features of these drive systems are briefly discussed.

Jan 1, 2011

By A. K. Smith

Overexposure to noise remains a widespread, serious health hazard in the U.S. mining industry. Most other categories of illnesses and injuries associated with mining have improved, with the exception of hearing loss. U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) coal noise data from 2000-2004 show that the continuous mining machine (CMM) is first among all equipment, accounting for 35% of noise overexposures. Joy Mining Machinery, in collaboration with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), is conducting research to reduce noise generated by continuous mining machines. This paper describes a "JOY Designed for Noise Reduction" (JOY DNR; patent pending) tail section as a noise control for reducing the noise overexposures of CMM operators. Underground testing shows a 45% to 65% noise exposure reduction for the operator when comparing the JOY DNR tail section results to those for a standard machine. Utilizing this newly developed noise control, along with previously proven controls, will provide CMM operators an opportunity to be within the MSHA permissible exposure limit (MSHA-PEL). Mining Engineering, 2011, Vol. 63, No. 7, pp. 83-85. Official publication of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.

Jan 1, 2011

By T. D. Chatwin

While new jobs and taxes are major incentives for support of mining, stakeholders must also be assured that current jobs, resources and environment will be protected. Mining companies can help achieve stakeholder support by frankly addressing Acid Rock Drainage CARD) issues. To prevent ARD, miners must begin early in the mine life-cycle to develop an ARD management plan and integrate it into the mining operation. As this proactive preventative program is initiated, mining companies also need to engage and collaborate with stakeholders to insure that their expectations and needs are met. Stakeholder engagement is enhanced as mining companies emphasizes the value of clean and available water for current and future generations.

Jan 1, 2011

By A. Kale

A chlorination pilot plant having capacity to produce 5?10 kg/hr of titanium tetrachloride is in operation at the chlorination facility in Mintek. The bubbling fluid bed chlorination plant can be operated in batch and/or continuous process to study the chlorination kinetics of various feedstocks. The chlorination of titaniferrous ores to produce titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) was carried out during the commissioning of the pilot plant and also as part of the titanium programme carried out at Mintek. TiCl4 is a basic raw material for producing commercial titanium dioxide pigment and titanium metal. This paper discusses the challenges faced during the commissioning and operation of the chlorination pilot plant. It also discusses the effect on the auxiliary facilities and instrumentation as a result of the harsh operating conditions of +1000°C and use of corrosive gases like chlorine and titanium tetrachloride. It discusses the effect of physico-chemical properties of the titanium tetrachloride and iron chlorides. The effect on the chlorinator refractory lining due to heating and cooling of the chlorinator is also discussed. Besides the special provisions made during the design of the chlorinator, this paper also discusses the operational experience and possible solutions to be implemented in future. Keywords Fluid bed chlorination, titanium ore chlorination, titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) production using fluid bed technology.

Jan 1, 2011

By Les R. Chernauskas

Driven pipe piles are commonly used for near and offshore structures due to their omni-directional bending resistance, large surface area, and ease of installation. However, these piles typically cannot be driven deep enough to develop significant and sustained uplift capacity, and in some cases do not generate enough end-bearing resistance before being overstressed during driving. When driven closed-ended, their relatively light weight to cross-sectional ratio, and when driven open-ended their tendency to prematurely plug, are some installation short comings. Spin Fin® piles are traditional pipe piles fitted with flat, steel plates (?fins?) attached at a slight angle over the lower few feet of the pipe. Their design development dates back several decades for projects associated with harsh, limited weather window, offshore Alaskan oil field work. These projects required a pile type that could generate high and sustained capacity in both compression and tension, at relatively shallow depth. During pile driving, a relatively short, high capacity pile translates into more rapid installations with smaller and more efficient equipment. In this type of environment, where pile capacities are large, cyclic loading is typical, and relatively high pile movement is tolerable, the Spin Fin® pile is a superior solution. This paper describes the experience of using Spin Fin® piles on several recently completed Massachusetts Steam Ship Authority projects.

Jan 1, 2011

By I. J. Barker

Keywords: Submerged-arc furnace, plasma furnace, d.c. furnace, scale up, Søderberg electrodes, smart grid, demand side management, load shedding This paper argues that the scale up of furnaces and the supply of electricity are going to be two major issues that will affect the ferro-alloy industry in the near future, and that economic factors will drive this development. The most common type of furnace for producing ferro-alloys at present is the submerged-arc furnace with three electrodes, fed from a three-phase a.c. electrical supply. The scale up of this technology has now reached a fundamental constraint, which is caused by the electrical reactance of the secondary circuit. If the economy of any further scale up is to be achieved in the future then a different technology will have to be used. The supply of electrical power in future is likely to become a more complex issue than it is at present. Existing submerged-arc furnaces tend to run at fairly steady loads, but the ability to swing the load under demand-side management may offer advantages, and may allow a furnace to get cheaper power from the organisations that supply this power. This will have to be counterbalanced against the nuisance factors incurred by having a varying load in the operation of the furnace. Various options are therefore discussed in this paper. The possibility of scale up of Søderberg electrodes is discussed, as well as the use of d.c. power and multiple electrodes. Some of the issues with load swinging are also examined. A particular scenario is also briefly presented to show that considerable further scale up of ferro-alloy furnaces is still possible.

Jan 1, 2011

By Jian Liu

The study aims to leach copper from a low-grade flotation middling by optimizing the leaching process using response surface methodology. The effect of key parameters, i.e., sulfuric acid concentration, nitric acid concentration and leaching time, on the leaching efficiency was investigated and a quadratic model was suggested by the methodology to correlate the variables to the efficiency. The results indicate that the model is in good agreement with the experimental data at a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.97 and the most influential parameter on efficiency was identified as sulfuric acid concentration. The optimum conditions for copper leaching from the middling were identified as sulfuric acid concentration at 103.74 g/L, nitric acid concentration at 12.50 g/L and leaching time of 30.98 min; under such a condition, an average leaching efficiency of 93.16% was achieved from the middling.

Jan 1, 2011

By G. Kugler, M. Tercelj

"The use of the up-to date light alloys and their development are in the sharp ascent especially in transportation industry. In the last years the use of the magnesium alloys for the various purposes was strongly increased. The aim of present research was to study the influence of solidification rate on hot workability and on obtained mechanical properties of AM60 magnesium alloy. The study was also focused on possibility to omit prior homogenisation process which would result in cost reduction. The solidification of gravity cast alloy has been investigated with various methods of the thermal analysis: in situ simple thermal analysis and simultaneous thermal analysis. In order to reveal optimal hot working conditions the deformation behaviour was studied in the temperature range 200-450°C and strain rates between 0.001-lOs-1. Mechanical properties have been studied with tensile and impact toughness testing.IntroductionIn recent years, the increased demand for magnesium alloys has been mainly driven by the need of automotive and transportation industry to reduce the weight, as this is the most important parameter to reduce the energy consumption. Beside their very low weight in comparison to other metals, the magnesium alloys are characterized by good machinability, corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties, and can thus compete with aluminium alloys and for some applications even with steels. Due their decreased workabilty they are typically used as cast alloys, but in recent years also the research of their wrought state has become more extensive [1-7]. Decreased hot workability of magnesium alloys originates from their hexagonal close-packed structure. One of the most popular magnesium alloys with great potential for many applications is AM60 (MgA16Mn), which is predominately used for casting. But its application could be increased if the mechanical properties, could be improved. This can be done by hot working. Namely it is well known that wrought microstructure is characterized by better mechanical properties in comparison to as-cast state. On the other hand due to its low hot workability the homogenization process is required prior hot deformation, which results in increased production costs. Thus the aim of the present research was to study the influence of solidification rate on hot workability of AM60 alloy in order to improve its mechanical properties and to check the possibility of producing near-net-shape casting products omitting homogenisation process by employing small additional deformations after casting. Within the framework of this research the solidification of gravity cast AM60 alloy has been investigated with various methods of the thermal analysis."

Jan 1, 2011

By B. Wasmund

Success in implementing new technology for metallurgical processes is not a foregone conclusion: This paper includes a survey of 23 new technology-based metallurgical plant start-ups, in which the authors have identified 7 successes, 9 difficult start-ups, and 7 failures. Success is defined not only as meeting the schedule and budget to the end of mechanical completion; the key goal is a fast ramp up to the full design production level, with minimum plant and equipment modifications required after start-up. This paper sets out the key factors that underlie achievement of a quick production ramp up curve, as determined from the authors? project experiences and a quantitative analysis of over twenty metallurgical plant start-ups, both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical. Thorough test-work and pilot plants, plus appropriate scale-up to the full commercial plant, are key determinants of success in implementing new technology in metallurgical processes. Another critical factor is the number of new elements and their interactions. Project phasing is also particularly important for new technology projects, with appropriate review after each phase to develop a risk mitigation plan for the subsequent phase. New technology projects need committed champions to advance the project in the face of sceptics, but also require dispassionate and unbiased experts to ask the hard questions. As a project evolves, it is important to periodically question the appropriateness of assumptions, as well as to re-assess the relevance and completeness of data from test-work / pilot plants / industrial analogues. Sufficient human and financial resources are required to complete the often arduous implementation phase. During the ramp-up period, the operation generates little positive cash flow; however, significant expertise and capital are required for the de-bottlenecking projects that are often necessary to reach the plant?s design output level.

Jan 1, 2011

By Manqiu Xu, Songtao Yang, Zongfu Dai, Robert Pelton

Five years ago, VALE Base Metals (then INCO), approached Pelton's group at McMaster and described a challenging mineral separations problem. The McMaster group has a strong track record in colloids, polymers, and chemical additives for papermaking; however, they had no experience in mineral processing. They proposed employing hydrophobic nanoparticles to replace conventional low molecular weight, water-soluble flotation collectors. Over the last five years, Vale, together with the Ontario Government (OCE) have funded two graduate students at McMaster who have worked closely with flotation experts at Vale. Experiments involving both very clean model mineral suspensions at McMaster and complex ores at Vale, have shown that hydrophobic nanoparticles do indeed function as collectors. Key nanoparticle properties and mechanisms have been identified and the technology has been protected in patent applications. Efforts to commercialize the technology are on-going. We believe that this project is a good case study demonstrating the advantages of industry-university collaboration and the use of outside experts, who may come up with novel solutions to complex problems.

Jan 1, 2011

By V. Galla

Waste rock facilities (WRF) generally have a large footprint depending on the strip ratio the mine plan provides. Considerable planning is involved during the initial phase of the mine plan regarding the location of the WRF. As the mining operations are commenced the locations of the WRF change accordingly with the variations in the mine plan involving feedback and support from local communities and stakeholders. Waste rock facilities management becomes challenging when the area available for placement is limited due to terrain topography, environmental and permitting constraints. Risks associated in the design of waste rock facilities constitute particle size of rock, chemistry associated with the rock for reactivity and stability of the over all facility. This paper will provide some insights on designing, scheduling and managing a WRF. Emphasis on geotechnical, geophysics and geochemistry aspects of waste rock with reference to design, construction process and scheduling of WRF are also presented. Design improvements in the reclamation slope of WRF for erosion control will be discussed. Continuous improvement (CI) methodology will be introduced in the process of WRF operations. Current practices and future recommendations towards sustainability and consistency in operating WRF will be discussed in conclusion.

Jan 1, 2011

By R. H. Lien

The Bureau of Mines investigated nitrous oxide (N20) stability when used as a solvent for organic removal from metal powder surfaces. Both supercritical and subcritical conditions were studied. This investigation was prompted by the occurrence of a violent reaction when supercritical N20 was being used to deoil a metal powder grinding waste sample that contained 20 to 25 wt pct cutting oil. Tests were conducted to determine the cause of the reaction and to define stability limits. Test data showed that the waste's oil fraction reacted violently with N20 acting as an oxidizer; the metal powder acted as a promoter to reduce the ignition temperature. Although the data were scattered, this temperature appeared to reach a minimum at a certain pressure (dependent on vessel and sample size). The minimum ignition temperature for a 0.64-g sample in a 72-cm3 vessel was 360° C at 200 psig. As the sample size increased, the ignition temperature decreased. For example, when the sample size was increased to 10 g, a reaction occurred at 240° C and 600 psig. Because of the variability of ignition temperature with pressure and sample size, safe operating conditions were not established. Overall, this research showed that extreme caution should be exercised when using N20 in an organic or organic-metal system.

Jan 1, 2011

By Wei Gao, Qing-cai Liu, Cun-fang Lu, Jian Yang, Hinmi Zheng

"The mode of occurrence of sulfur and mercury in 57 Chinese bituminous coals have been examined using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Zeeman atomic absorption mercury spectrometer. Mercury levels in coal are related to the geographic location of the coals and types of the coals. A synthesis of result indicated that most likely occurrence modes of mercury in high-sulfur and high-mercury coals are in solid solution in pyrite. Our study from 57 coal samples showed that most values of mercury concentration in coal varied from 100 to 1000 ng/g with an average of approximately 500ng/g, and mathematical model about correlation between mercury and sulfur was gained by mathematical statistics. This is apparent that mercury and sulfur vary concomitantly from coal data (table 3) , the high correlation between them in all coals at confidence of 95% ( a=0.05 ) .1. INTRODUCTIONThere contained about one trillion ton abundant coal resources in China. As a leading level of proven coal reserves in the world, the coals mainly distributed in north China and northwest China, especially in Shanxi, Guizhou, Shanxi provinces and Inner-Mongolia autonomous region. At the same time, China has the largest production and consumption of coal, and has the output of coal nearly accounted for 37 percent of the world's production. Coal-fired power plants are the major source of energy generation in China, and the proportion of coal combustion is up to 75 percent in the total energy configuration. Therefore, the mercury pollution caused by coal-fired has become a topic of wide-spread discussions since 1990. The contamination of mercury of human activities accounted for 10 to 30 percent [1], and the mercury emissions of coal-fired flue gas has made the greatest contribution to the pollution of atmosphere[2] In the past 30 years, the global increasing concentration of mercury pollutant in atmosphere maybe result from coal combustion[2]. The mercury emissions caused by coal-burning has become the main reason of China's mercury pollution, and the characteristics of mercury pollution is closely related to China's energy configuration, additionally, the features of mercury pollution have changed from the point pollution in 1970's to diffused pollution today[3]. Mercury can be found in various types of coals, and it is evaporated into gas phase during the combustion process."

Jan 1, 2011

By Yves Fouquet

Results of the two main drilling operations on hydrothermal fields demonstrate that the two dimensional submersible operations need to be followed by drilling expeditions to study the third dimension of hydrothermal systems and understand hydrothermal and ore forming processes. Two types of environments were drilled recently in basaltic environment on slow spreading ridge, and on a sedimented ridge. Similar work has still to be done and targets to be discussed in other environments such as back-arc basins for felsic rocks environments and slow spreading ridges for ultramafic rock environments.

Jan 1, 2011