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By Egil Krystad, Merete Tangstad, Kai Tang, Gabriella Trenell

"A new UMG-Si refining concept has been proposed in this paper. Liquid Si and another liquid metal phase (Me) were separated by the molten slag spontaneously based on their different physicochemical properties. Two metal/slag distribution reactions are able to occur in the system simultaneously. Experimental investigation on the B and P distribution equilibria among Si/slag/Me was carried out in the graphite resistance furnace under the inert atmosphere. The B and P doped silicon was in equilibrium with either the SiO2-CaO or SiO2-CaO-l0%CaF2 slags at 1600 and 1650°C, respectively. The pure Fe and Cu metals were used in order to ""capture"" B and P in the slag phases. B and P in samples were determined by the ICP-MS. B and P distribution coefficients for the Si/slag/Me equilibria were compared with the theoretical calculations. The possible kinetic barriers for the Si/slag/Me three-layer equilibria have been analyzed. The metal contaminations in the three-layer equilibria were also examined. The present study provides a new approach for the refining of MG-Si.IntroductionMost of the impurities in the metallurgical silicon (MG-Si) are rather ""dilute'', ranging from few to several thousand ppms. However, the target impurity levels for upgrade metallurgical silicon (UMG-Si) feedstock are often far below the level of ppm. In such extreme case, the conventional refining technologies face the great technical challenges. B removal by slagging has already been implemented industrially. Removal of Pis frequently carried out by the vacuum distillation. The separating treatments for B and P removals lead to increase refining cost, total CO2 emission and longer pay-back time of solar cell module.It is well known that the phosphate capacities of slags in equilibrium with liquid silicon are extremely lower. However, if we introduce another phase that possesses high ""phosphor capacity"" into the Si/slag system, one would expect to continuously remove P from Si through molten slag to the new ""phosphor capturer"". The so-called three-layer refming concept is thus proposed in the present study. Liquid Si and another liquid phase (Me) are separated by the molten slag spontaneously based on their different physicochemical properties. Two metal/slag distribution reactions are able to occur in the system simultaneously."

Jan 1, 2013

By William S. Fyfe

The world's biomass with its species-specific ability to concentrate metallic elements must provide one of the dominant concentration and transport systems for such elements. Given that about thirty elements are now considered bio-essential, for all these biomass may control their environmental behavior. Life appears to be present in almost all places where liquid water is present at temperatures near 100°C or below. In the surface environment a very large array of simple minerals are produced in living cells and such processes can lead to economic concentrations. Because of the specific nature of bioconcentration of elements, in all environments where biomaterials accumulate, interesting metal concentrations may occur or the molecular fragments from bio-degradation may allow specific metal transport and concentration. The scale of biological-inorganic interactions on our planetary surface is still inadequately appreciated.

Jan 1, 2013

By J. Lee, M. Peart, T. Bhambhani, D. R. Nagaraj, P. Riccio

"Over the past decade or so, our efforts have focused on developing the rationale and concepts for new technology in reagent development and optimization in the processing of base and precious metals. A major outcome of these efforts have been the development of a novel family of collectors, principally driven by the MAXGOLD® and Aero XD-5002® chemistries, for precious metals recovery from primary Au ores and Cu-Au ores. These chemistries was developed to be robust to address the complex mineralogy and gold deportment in these ores. Plant trial data for a variety of ores have confirmed that the both Aero® XD-5002 and MAXGOLD® chemistry are indeed versatile in recovering gold values occurring as gold alloys and/or associated with many types of sulfides, and in altering the deportment of certain sulfides (such as those bearing As, Bi etc). An overview will be given in this paper using plant data to highlight the application of these reagents.INTRODUCTIONThe subject matter of this paper is the flotation of Au containing minerals from their ores. The motivation from this manuscript comes from the several challenges faced with the processing of Au ores, as was articulated in detail by Nagaraj (2008). The biggest challenge is the complex mineralogy; most easy-to-treat free-milling ores bodies are largely depleted. The Au values are distributed in multiple host minerals such as pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite and Cu minerals such as chalcopyrite. Au values also happen to be finely disseminated within the various minerals and are sometimes invisible in optical microscopy. Additionally, on any given day, some mines treat multiple ore types, and the mineralogy is different for each ore type.Xanthates continue to be the collectors of choice at most Au and PGM operations around the world. Most primary Au operations tend to consume very large amounts of collectors; the dosage ranges anywhere between 40-400 g/t and this has been attributed to both mineralogical and non-mineralogical factors (non-mineralogical factors include the low cost of xanthates and the mindset that “more is always better”, which is not necessarily the case). In addition, several studies now show that xanthates alone are never sufficient where multiple value minerals are present, and that supplementary collectors are required. The large doses present a substantial cost to the minerals industry, and many mining companies have expressed the need for more efficient reagents that can improve metallurgical performance at low dosages."

Jan 1, 2013

Mining steeply dipping coal seams is a difficult task. Prior to 1996, fully mechanized longwall mining methods along the seam strike direction were tried in China and other countries. Due to its larger coal reserve in steep seams, China made more, but still limited, progress on mining such seams than other major coal-mining countries. In the last two decades, accelerated research efforts have tried to improve the mining technology in steeply dipping coal seams. Based on this work, a dynamic model of a roof-support-floor (R-S-F) system under asymmetrical constraints in mining steep seams is established here, and a theory of strata control and hazard prevention is formed. The key technologies for mining steep coal seams include global and regional strata control methods in the longwall face; methods for the longwall face machines to sustain static and dynamic loads; and flexible protection technology. These theories and technologies have been successfully applied in China to the mining of steep coal seams of varying thickness and hardness, with hard and soft roof and floor, and with a high potential for spontaneous combustion. In recent years, the technology has been introduced to Russia, India, Uzbekistan and other countries where steep coal seams are mined.

Jan 1, 2013

By Douglas L. Scaggs

Driving piles in under water applications has become more common place over the past twenty years. Where only a water depth reachable with a follower or dewatered cofferdam was the rule in the past, newer technologies developed for the offshore oil and gas industry have made depths of even several thousand feet possible offering new possibilities in foundation design and installation. With the new technology, engineers can now more efficiently design structures by placing foundations optimally thereby reducing weight and cost of the overall structure.

Jan 1, 2013

By Brian E. Perrine

Underground mining requires a variety of specialized equipment. With ever-changing mining conditions and methods, some mines have had to resort to purchasing existing industrial equipment and adapting it for underground use. Since this equipment is not made for underground mining or their specific task, the result is often lost time, money, and sometimes an unsafe working condition. One such application is the setting of a CAN. A CAN is a type of cylindrical secondary roof support made from a cement composite and encased in steel. The CAN has become popular because of its simple one-piece design that can handle heaving and sagging better than other available designs. ?Because of this exceptional ability to sustain load through extended convergence and displacement, the CAN is one of the most robust and stable standing supports in use today.?It also promotes better air flow due to the size and shape of the CAN. CAN size and weight have increased over time to handle more difficult mining conditions. Significant down time and inefficiencies with existing CAN setting machines at Twentymile Coal were directly due to the item in use not being designed to be task-specific. They were undersized with very limited movement. The miners had to take extra steps and precautions when setting CANs. Maintenance delays were significant. Twentymile Coal Company realized that they required a safer, more reliable and more efficient machine to handle and set CANs, and looked for a partner to develop a new design-specific machine. They worked jointly with J.H. Fletcher® engineering and sales to design and manufacture a machine specifically made for setting CANs. The objective was to produce a machine that would handle the conditions and methods that the mine required for setting CANs during longwall retreat. The resulting design had to be safe, stable, have a wide range of motion, be ergonomic, simple to use, and easy to maintain. The machine also had to improve efficiency. The resulting machine has been operating for approximately one year at Twentymile Coal and has been proven to improve safety, reliability, and efficiency. In conclusion, with the task-specific CAN Manipulator, the mine is able to better plan daily tasks with the knowledge that the machine will be available throughout a shift, and the employees will be safer because of the machine?s ergonomics, stability and safety. This has resulted in better productivity and a safer environment.

Jan 1, 2013

By M. Kahn

This paper traces the rise of South Africa's mining industry in the context of the different state forms that oversaw its development. It commences with the mining-led industrial revolution through four periods of conflict, each of which contributed to a deepening of the industrial base, with constant battles between domestic and foreign capital and labour, and the rise of both Afrikaner and African nationalism. The role of state-owned enterprises has been crucial in shaping this dynamic so that at its peak the public sector and leading mining houses constituted two massive centres of power. This was followed by a thirty-year period of neo-liberal experimentation. The current debate on the 'developmental state' is an attempt to reconstruct the state as a counterweight to capital. It is argued that while the country has moved toward inclusive political and economic institutions, these are both limited by deep 'extractive' characteristics. This transformation failure provides a fertile ground for populism that presents one of the biggest threats to inclusive growth. Cited examples point to the many ways that states have sought to deal with the bonanza that conversion of mineral non-resources into resources brings. Such greenfield resources on state land, or in areas where the state holds monopoly rights, do not present ownership issues. It is suggested that this is the route that South Africa should follow, as the alternative will be conflictual.

Jan 1, 2013

In April 2012, work started on one of the most ambitious construction projects of Austria?s ÖBB-Infrastruktur AG ? the New Semmering Base Tunnel. Scheduled for completion in 2024, the 27.3 km (17 mile) tunnel through the Semmering range will cut the journey time on the south railway connecting Lower Austria and Styria. Before con-struction can begin at the entrance portal and tunnel bores, the work concentrates on the above ground sections with the clearance and excavation of the entrance ramp site. The slope is currently being excavated by the Baubeteiligungsge-sellschaft m.b.H. BBG-GRAZ. The cut face is shored up with shotcrete and permanent self-drilling anchors produced by Minova MAI, an economical bolting solution for softer rock formations. After completing the surface construction work, the twin-bore, single-track tunnel will be cut through the Semmering by conventional and continuous excavation beginning in 2015. Once completed, the New Semmering Base Tunnel will be one of the longest rail tunnels in Austria. It will act as a vital link on the route crossing Europe?s heartland from Northern Germany to Italy, which currently has to climb the steep Semmering pass between Gloggnitz and Mürzzuschlag on a historic mountain railway recognized as one of the UNESCO World Heritage sites. The old route imposes considerable limitations on heavy freight trans-port, and passenger trains have to slow down to a speed of around 50 kph (31 mph). The New Semmering Base Tunnel will bypass this bottleneck and cut 30 minutes off the journey time between Vienna and Graz. It represents a particular advantage for freight traffic, since the new route?s minimal incline of 8.4 percent removes all obstacles for even heavy freight trains.

Jan 1, 2013

By F. T. Cawood

This article is a continuation of a series of publications by the authors on the international debate on resource nationalism, with specific reference to South Africa. Previous outcomes have shown that mine nationalization is not a solution for South Africa, and that maintaining stability of the current mineral and tax regimes is fundamental. It will not be wise to replace existing law and policy instruments until there is a better understanding of the distinction between fact and public perception about the impact of the current system. The new scheme of state custodianship linked to a mining royalty that effectively targets economic rents provides for effective resource use. The methodology in this article is to consider how South Africa's mineral tax regime can be tweaked to achieve optimal management and benefit from mineral extraction and associated rents by avoiding changes feared by investors. The major finding is that the current suite of instruments can be considered a suitable platform for optimal management of resource rents. However, it will be necessary to first investigate ways of improving the mineral beneficiation intent of the royalty structure, and secondly investigate whether the mineral rent portion of the royalty formula can be ring-fenced for the purpose of establishing a sovereign wealth fund.

Jan 1, 2013

By Huimin Lu, Lian Zhou, Panpan Wang

"For the low concentration C02 exhaust gas from coal-fired power plant, steel plant emission trapping and recycle problem, a pressure swing adsorption process was studied, using a porous imidazolate framework materials (ZIFs) as adsorbent, separating carbon dioxide from fuel gas mixture. In the carbon dioxide reduction condition by electrochemical method, using ionic liquids as electrolyte, the oxygen and carbon products could be obtained, including carbon nanotube, nano carbon fiber and amorphous carbon. At last, a new C02 collection, recycling and reuse technology was formed.IntroductionDuring the combustion of fossil fuel in coal-fired power plant or steel plant, large amount of carbon dioxide has continuously emitted into the atmosphere. The phenomenon has resulted in the melt of arctic glacier and the frequent emergence of abnormal climate. How to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide and protect human living environment has become a worldwide challenge. Recently, there are three routes to resolve this problem: The first one is to adjust the energy structure and develop new energy, such as solar, wind, hydrogen; the second one is to improve energy efficiency and avoid waste; the third one is to research capture and sequestration of carbon dioxide (CCS). But many researchers have come to realize that the recovery and utilization of carbon dioxide are more important than the sequestration of it. Because the captured carbon dioxide just buried under the earth maybe cause secondary pollution if carbon dioxide leak out from the adsorbent."

Jan 1, 2013

By Xi Huang

The coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP) has been considered as the most serious health problem in the coal mining industry. The development of CWP in a worker lung depends on the average concentration and toxic components of the coal dust and the exposure length. Toxicity studies on coal dust shows the bio-available iron (BAI) in the coal dust plays an adverse role in the CWP development. It is also found that presence of calcite in the coal seams can significantly reduce the CWP cases as evidenced by the significant difference between the coal miners in the western and Appalachian coal regions. Based on this finding, it is proposed to artificially introduce calcite to BAI -containing coals in the effort to mitigate the CWP disease in coal industry. This paper introduces the scientific bases, the main geological factor that makes the differences, the proposed methods to introduce calcite to coal dust or to coal seams. Feasibility for the proposed methods is also discussed.

Jan 1, 2013

By N. A. Chapman

The effect of using conventional crushing and HPGR in combination with dry or wet milling was investigated using a base metal sulphide (sphalerite), and a PGM (platinum group minerals) ore in order to determine how these different processes affect the flotation performance. In the case of sphalerite, irrespective of the crushing procedure (HPGR or conventional), dry milling resulted in the highest grades and recoveries of zinc. Conversely, in the case of PGMs, a similar treatment produced the poorest results. The results were investigated further by comparing the relative effects of factors such as percentage liberation, particle size, and surface properties of the samples produced by the different milling procedures as well as the concentrates and tailings obtained from the flotation tests.

Jan 1, 2013

By Deon van Tonder, Chuck Edwards

"Solvent extraction is used in many acid leach uranium circuits to upgrade and purify the uranium bearing solution prior to final product precipitation. A number of strip options are available to recover the uranium from the loaded organic. This paper compares some of these options on the basis of typical capital and operating costs for both the solvent extraction circuit and downstream uranium processing, and also considers other related issues. The aim is to provide an objective comparative assessment of these options that could be used as a qualitative guide in process selection or improvement.INTRODUCTIONIn the 1950s the uranium industry was the first industry to adopt solvent extraction (SX). Since then, the flow sheets have advanced. Notable was the introduction of tertiary amine extractants by General Mills during the late 1950s and 1960s (Mackenzie, 1997; Mackenzie, 2005), which is still today considered ‘state of the art’ technology. Initially solvent extraction was done in combination with ion-exchange, such as in the Eluex flow sheet, followed later by the adoption of direct solvent extraction from pregnant leach solution (PLS). From a strip-precipitation perspective ammonia strip followed by ammonium diuranate precipitation was widely adopted as the norm in the uranium industry. More recently alternative strip systems have been receiving increasing attention due to the environmental, health and safety issues associated with ammonia and the resulting calcined uranium oxide product. This paper explores some of these alternative options in comparison with the ammonia route.It is important to acknowledge that each operation is unique, and therefore the information and philosophy outlined in this paper serve to provide a general guide that can be potentially applied and adapted to any site or project."

Jan 1, 2013

By L. O. Souza, J. F. Gewher, M. P. Scussiatto, C. S. Mendonca, R. A. McClure, B. T. Kuckartz, J. Kloeckner

Blasting is the most effective and economical tool available to fragment and move rock for most applications. If properly executed, it can improve down-stream operations such as loading, hauling and crushing. It is not possible, however, to have full control over the energy released by the explosives when a poorly designed blast pattern is used. A poorly designed blast can produce serious damage to equipment and create a potentially hazardous condition to people. Advanced mining technology has been developed to address these potential hazards and optimize the blast pattern. This profiling technology can assist with blast planning and provide quick, precise data about the condition of the rock structure to be blasted. The 3G BlastMetrix system presented here uses three-dimensional (3D) stereo photogrammetry to model the rock mass in a fast, practical and safe manner. Through the image overlapping method, a 3D model is created with thousands of points that provide a significant amount of data regarding geology, geometry and topography conditions. The blasting plan can then be made in a way to optimize the rock fragmentation and avoid areas that could create flyrock. This paper is a case study concerning usage of stereo photogrammic surveying and borehole survey systems in a blasting operation at the Brazilian Quarry, Incopel. One 3D image of a drilled bench was generated using photogrammetry survey technology and the borehole survey data collected using the rodded Boretrak borehole survey system. Utilizing the minimum burden profile reports, explosive loading could be done accurately, resulting in an optimized blast with good heave and fragmentation as well as increased safety.

Jan 1, 2013

By T. B. Thompson

The Leadville District has been a prominent metal producer since its discovery in 1860. Veins and replacement bodies both have contributed to district production. The latter have been the major metal sources and are hosted within the Paleozoic Leadville, Dyer, and Manitou Dolomites. Igneous bodies representing eight separate events cut the sedimentary section. The main intrusive complex within the district occurs in the Breece Hill area and was the thermal center about which the vein and replacement ores exhibit mineralogical zoning. Precious metal-pyrite-quartz veins (quartz Th= 422 to 469°C; salinity < 4.2 wt. percent eNaCI) occur within or peripheral to the Breece Hill Intrusive Complex, whereas base metal veins and replacement bodies extend from the complex margins outward as much as 2 mi. Pre-ore and post-ore igneous bodies occur, but Fragmental Porphyry dikes immediately post-date the ore event. The Fragmental Porphyry grades downward from a heterolithic breccia with rock-flour matrix to one with a dark, glassy, sulfide- and phenocryst-bearing matrix, commonly with quartz-feldspar porphyry selvages on the dike. Two types of replacement bodies are recognized in the district: 1) the Leadville-type (LTM), massive sulfide (> 60% sulfides) bodies with recoverable Zn, Pb, Ag, and Au, and 2) the Sherman-type (STM), sulfide bodies (low total sulfide) with barite, galena, sphalerite, argentian tetra.hedrite, and minor pyrite. The latter type occurs only within the Leadville Dolomite and is found throughout the Mosquito Range and extending into the Alma District. The Leadville-type replacement bodies are zoned with a pyritic margin and base metal core. Wallrock alteration and trace Pb-Zn dispersion are strongly developed in igneous wallrocks but are weakly developed in carbonate wallrocks. Cu:Zn, Ag:Zn, and Au:Fe ratios increase outward from the center to the margins of LTM. Some of the sulfide bodies are localized on earlier-formed magnetite skarns. Pyrrhotite, pyrite, and marcasite are the earliest formed sulfide phases while chalcopyrite, marmatite, and galena developed later. Tetrahedrite and electrum occur in vugs and fine veinlets cutting the sulfides. Late-stage barite, dolomite, and fluorite occur as minor phases. Pressure-corrected Th for quartz (375-410°C), sphalerite (374-387°C), barite (320-360°C), and dolomite (310-314°C) fluid inclusions with salinities < 5.2 wt. percent eNaCI characterize the fluid responsible for the formation of the Leadville-type orebodies. These values clearly demonstrate the high temperature and low salinity of the ore fluids. Sulfur isotope analyses for galena and barite from LTM are - 1.9 to + 0.9%o and 7.8%o, respectively. Proximity to feeder veins and favorable dolomite hosts are the principal controls on ore localization. The Sherman-type bodies are not internally zoned but commonly have host rock silicification near the orebody margin or in the footwall rocks adjacent to fluid flowpaths along faults. Early quartz, pyrite, dolomite, and white barite precede base metal-silver minerals which are followed by late quartz and golden barite. It is not clear whether the early quartz and the late quartz and barite are part of the STM-forming process. Fluid inclusion analyses yield trapping temperatures as follows: early quartz, 316-341 °C; barite, 264-347°C; low-iron sphalerite, 215-265°C; and late quartz, 260-278°C. All inclusion fluids have salinities < 8.1 wt. percent eNaCI. Sulfur isotope values for barite and galena from STM range from 13.2 to 24.00/00 (avg: 18.4%o) and -6.8 to -3.8%o (avg: -5.5o/00), respectively. A hydrothermal fluid d34SSS of about 15%o is needed in order for galena and barite in equilibrium to exhibit the observed sulfur isotope compositions. Equilibrium sulfur isotope fractionation between barite and galena indicates a 300°C temperature of deposition. Two separate hydrothermal events appear to have taken place to form the distinctive Leadville-type orebodies and those of the Sherman-type assemblage. The STM is known to be older than the LTM. The latter is likely mid-Tertiary in age, post-dating emplacement of the Johnson Gulch Porphyry. LTM is clearly related to meteoric leaching of sulfur and lead (and other metals) from the upper portions of the Breece Hill Stock. Fluids were transmitted along faults, bedding planes, and contacts, and cooled away from the intrusive complex. Early ore fluids were weakly acidic and developed argillic assemblages in the igneous rocks adjacent to the fluid conduits. Reaction/replacement of carbonate rocks occurred where fluids encountered dolomite, but rapid neutralization prevented any wide-spread alteration beyond the ore-carbonate host contact. Pressures based on sphalerite geobarometry and stratigraphic reconstruction were 1.0-1.2 Kb. The high temperatures of vein and replacement ore fluids indicate that chloride complexing was more effective in metal transport than bisulfide complexes. Cooling, dilution of ore fluids, and reaction with carbonate rocks were the major factors in LTM ore deposition. STM formed over wide expanses of the Leadville Dolomite terrain adjacent to (and possibly capping) the Sawatch uplift. Sedimentary sulfur was derived from Pennsylvanian evaporite-bearing sequences adjacent to the uplift. Ore leads are strongly radiogenic (J-type) and are compatible with a crustal-leaching model. Temperatures of ore formation are higher, and ore-fluid salinities are lower than Mississippi Valley-type ore fluids. Superimposed upon dark-gray, diagenetic Leadville Dolomite are several stages of hydrothermal dolomite regionally distributed astride intrusive centers of the Colorado Mineral Belt. The presence of these later dolomites argues for dolomitization and later ore deposition in response to an abnormal thermal gradient caused by emplacement of Laramide batholiths and their generation of convective flow of meteoric fluids.

Jan 1, 2013

By Dinesh P. Amalnerkar, Nagegownivari Munirathnam, Tirthalli Prakash, Katia Vutova, Vania Vassileva, Veliko Donchev

"A time-dependent model for electron beam melting and refining (EBMR) of different metals and alloys is developed. The model is 3D axi-symmetrical and an adapted numerical scheme of Pismen-Rekftord type is applied. The developed computer program computes the thermal fields in the metal ingots during EBMR process as well as the dynamics of the thermal streams and the geometry of the molten metal pools. Calculated results for different regimes of EBMR of titanium are obtained and discussed in the paper. Experiments are performed and impurities' concentration data are presented. Simulation results are compared with experimental data and are used for optimization of the EBMR process in the case of Ti.IntroductionElectron beam melting and refining (EBMR) has an important role in the special electrometallurgy[ 1-6] and it is approved for obtaining of pure titanium [7]. EBMR of metals and alloys is being recognized as a competitive and even the single method for obtaining new materials for all areas of human activity.The principal scheme of the EBMR drip process is shown in Fig.1. A thin layer of molten metal is formed on the front part of the feeding rod during the e-beam processing and generated droplets fall into the molten pool in the crucible where the ingot is formed. The refining is mainly realized at the boundary liquid metal - vacuum. There are three zones in EBMR (Fig.1) - on the front part of the feeding rod (zone I in Fig.1 ), on the surface of the generated droplets (zone II in Fig.1) and the surface of the molten pool in the water-cooled copper crucible (zone III in Fig.1)."

Jan 1, 2013

By Shufang Ding, Fukun Yan, Zhiqiang Shan, Wei Chen, Cuicui Ji

"To remove aluminum ion from chlorinated rare earth solution, this paper used hydrolysis method to explore the hydrolysis behavior of aluminum ion in aluminum chloride solution and confirm the optimum conditions of aluminum ion hydrolysis, which are pH value, temperature and initial concentration of Al203 and so on. The experimental results show that single treatment can make aluminum precipitation rates of chlorinated rare earth solution reach about 90% by hydrolysis precipitation; and then several recycle disposal can get precipitation rates of 89% for aluminum and 2.86% for rare earth.IntroductionIn China, rare earth resources are very rich and unique minerals, complete variety, and rare earth products are very large in the domestic reserves. Rare-earth and application products have been deep into all areas of our life, permanent magnet material of rare earth is one of the most popular application areas[11. Binary oxides such as praseodymium neodymium have been widely applied in the fields of glass, ceramics, magnetic materials, catalysts and so on. Especially, the advent of the Pr-Nd-Fe-B magnets which makes the world magnetic material into a new stage of development [2•3]With the development of science and technology, for industrial, physical and chemical indicators of raw materials Pr-Nd oxides (such as particle size, specific surface area and non rare earth impurities etc.) are also getting higher and higher. The oxide size has an important influence on sludge formation in the electrolytic process. If the size is too large, added oxides have settled on the bottom of slot before melting, and then generated sludge; if the particle is too small, it can cause dust dispersion, enlarge oxide unit consumption and increase the cost of production in the charging process. Some early processes use oxalic acid to make chloride neodymium praseodymium settle, and impurity can be removed cleanly, but the cost is high, it is not suitable for production. At present, most enterprises are using ammonium hydrogen carbonate to precipitate chlorinated neodymium praseodymium, but chlorinated neodymium praseodymium such as iron and aluminum and so on can easily form gel in the precipitation process, seriously affect the growth of neodymium praseodymium carbonate crystal and often leads to particle meticulous, even may also generate gel-like neodymium praseodymium sediments and cause centrifugal or suction filtration difficult. Now the actions and their removal of impurity such as iron and aluminum have done a lot of research in the production process of rare earth, removing aluminum craft with alkaline (sodium hydroxide) and acid (oxalic acid) has good effect, but the cost is higher[41; used adding complex agent to remove aluminum method which is simple and easy to operate, but aluminum removal rate is not high, and also changed the sediment of crystal type[51, and etc. This paper discusses the removal of chlorine from rare earth solution on the basis of the hydrolysis property differences betweenAJ3+ and rare earth ion."

Jan 1, 2013

By Andrew Hyett

Over the last 30 years, a transition away from end-anchored bolts to fully grouted rock bolt systems has occurred in many underground mines. It seems geomechanically intuitive that the success of such bolts, which interfere with rock movements around underground excavations through a variety of complex interactions, is precisely why they remain challenging to instrument and monitor. Whereas measuring the load profile for an end-anchored mechanical bolt is trivial, for a fully grouted system, the load may vary dramatically due to discrete rock movement at cracks and joints. Despite the challenges, measuring the strain (i.e., load) along fully grouted rock bolts remains very appealing, and a lot of valuable research has been conducted using foil resistance strain gauges, particularly in US coal mines (Signer and Jones, 1990). Despite good intentions, more widespread adoption of this instrumentation remains unlikely for the following reasons: (i) The technology is expensive, partly because Intrinsically Safe (IS) requirements limit the number of suppliers and solutions. (ii) The technology is perceived as challenging to successfully implement except by those who are skilled in the art. (iii) The reliability of the technology is questionable in harsh environments. (iv) The technology relies on discrete pairs of strain gauges that may not capture the complete strain distribution along the bolt. No existing alternative technology can offer a solution to all of these limitations. However, in this paper, we introduce results from a new Distributed Optical Sensing technology that promises significant potential. Since the technology is capable of distributed sensing, our results suggest that this new technology can, for the first time, reveal the detailed strain profile along fully grouted rock bolts.

Jan 1, 2013

By Anja Pfennig, Axel Kranzmann, Sabrina Schulze

The CCS technique involves the compression of emission gasses in deep geological layers. To guarantee the safety of the site, C02-corrosion of the injection pipe steels has to be given special attention when engineering CCS-sites. To get to know the corrosion behaviour samples of the heat treated steel 1.7225 42CrMo4, used for casing, and the stainless injectionpipe steel 1.4034 X46Cr13 were kept at T=60 °C and ambient pressure as well as p=lOO bar for 700 h - 8000 h in a C02-saturated synthetic aquifer environment similar to possible geological on-shore CCS-sites in the northern German Basin. The isothermal corrosion behaviour obtained by mass gain of the steels in the gas phase, the liquid phase and the intermediate phase gives surface corrosion rates around 0.1 to 0.8 mm/year at ambient pressure and much lower about 0.02 to 0.2 mm/year at 100 bar where the C02 is in its supercritical state. Severe pit corrosion with pit heights around 4.5 mm are only located on the 42CrMo4 steel. Main phase of the continuous complicated multi-layered carbonate/oxide structure is siderite F eC03 in both types of steel.

Jan 1, 2013

By D. J. Young

Alloys used at high temperature must resist both creep and corrosion. Design for corrosion resistance is based on the formation of a slow-growing, protective oxide scale by selective oxidation of an appropriate alloy component, usually chromium or aluminium. A successful scale will exclude other corrodents, notably carbon, which can otherwise cause extremely rapid corrosion at high temperatures. Selective oxidation of an alloy component necessarily lowers the concentration of that metal in the alloy subsurface region. Under thermal cycling conditions, mechanical damage to the scale leads to renewed oxide growth and accelerated alloy depletion. Eventually, a point is reached where diffusion of a corrodent into the alloy becomes competitive with the outward diffusion of alloy metal to repair the protective scale. Two examples of alloy failure by carbon attack are considered. In the steam cracking (pyrolysis) process, centrifugally cast tubes of heat-resisting alloy are exposed to a gas stream of hydrocarbon and steam, at a carbon activity of unity. Formation and repair of the surface chromia scale causes alloy depletion, Kirkendall void formation, and subsequent internal precipitation of chromium-rich carbides. Their formation makes chromia scale formation much more difficult, and generates internal stress. Eventually, the tubes fail by creep rupture. In other processes (e.g. steam reforming, heat treatment), synthesis gases are supersaturated with carbon at intermediate temperatures. Once the alloy&apos;s protective scale is breached, carbon attacks the depleted substrate. In the case of ferritic alloys, it forms a surface scale of Fe3C. As this scale thickens, the supersaturated carbon precipitates as graphite within its outer regions. The resulting volume expansion causes disintegration of the cementite in a process known as metal dusting. In the case of austenitic alloys, no metal carbide is formed. Instead, carbon dissolves in the depleted metal to diffuse inward and precipitate as graphite within the metal matrix. Again, volume expansion causes disintegration of the alloy, and metal dusting results. Dusting occurs at an extraordinarily rapid rate, and leads to failure by section loss or even penetration.

Jan 1, 2013