Search Documents

Jan 1, 2002

By W. S. Landers

This bulletin is a detailed study of low-temperature, entrained-bed carbonization of a Texas lignite. The lignite studied was from the Sandow strip mine and is representative of the Rockdale formation of the Wilcox formational group. Carbonization was conducted in a continuous entrained-bed reactor at several temperatures in the 8801 to 1,52°C F range, and at air-coal ratios it the 0 to 10.30 scf/lb range (moisture- and ash-free basis). Carbonization rates ranged from 97.1 to 410.0 lb/hr (as-received basis), At the higher air-to-coal ratios employed, all or most of the carbonization heat was provided by internal combustion with air in the reactor. At the lower air-to-coal ratios, parts of the heat for carbonization was supplied externally. It was demonstrated that the entrained-bed carbonization of lignite is a complex reaction and that several variables, of which carbonization temperature, air-to-lignite ratio, and the average size of lignite are important, act together to influence both the carbonization yields and the properties of the resultant products, Process variables established by pant tests were used to design the industrial scale carbonizer operated at Rockdale, Texas, by the Texas Power & Light Company as agents for the Aluminum Company of America. Properties of the carbonization product obtained from the industrial scale reactor were essentially the same as those obtained from the pilot plant reactor operated under the same conditions.

Jan 1, 1968

By G. B. Shea, R. A. Cattell

This resume of the work of the Petroleum and Natural - Gas Division of the Bureau of Mines for the fiscal years 1940 and 1941 is the second of a series. of progress reports . It brings forward from the 1939 annual report information on the course of activities of the division in carrying out its objectives of increased conservation and better utilization of petroleum, natural gas, and related resources through a coordinated program of research and fact - finding . It discusses, also, special assignments. executed for other Government agencies, which in recent years have constituted a considerable part of the division's work ." . In the present national emergency, in which petroleum is so essential , many of the Bureau's research activities bear directly on the availability, conservation, and use of petroleum for national defense . Accordingly, during the past year attention has been focused for the most part.on.problems associated with the needs of national defense . Several long-time researches , which in themselves are potential sources of desirable knowledge , were judged to be of secondary importance under present conditions and accordingly were suspended . Studies also were oriented in line with rapidly changing conditions to meet the demand for accurate findings on short notice . The Petroleum and Natural - Gas Division has experiment stations at Bartlesville , Okla . , and Laramie, Wyo . , a field office at Dallas , Tex . , and a field office and laboratory at San Francisco , Calif . It also operates the Government helium plant near Amarillo , Tex. In addition to the helium operations , some of the petroleum and natural - gas research activities are conducted at the Amarillo plant .

Feb 1, 1942

The tensile test results of as-cast A356.2 grain-refined alloy castings show that the tensile strength can be improved by strontium modification (`SrM'), superheating at 900°C OM, and melt thermal treatment of the Sr-modified alloy melt (`SrMTT'). Both SrM and SrMTT processes can greatly improve the ductility (percent elongation) of the as-cast alloy. During solution heat treatment at 540°C, eutectic Si particles undergo fragmentation, spheroidization, and coarsening, thereby affecting their morphology. The effects of solution heat treatment on the tensile properties of the variously treated A356.2 alloy castings can be summed up as follows: the yield strength of the castings is significantly improved after 8 h solution heat treatment due to the precipitation of Mg2Si, after which it remains more or less the same with the further increase in solution treatment time up to 80 h; the ultimate tensile strength is also greatly improved within the first 8 h of solution heat treatment and then remains at the same level thereafter, up to 80h of solution treatment. The improvement in UTS is attributed to Mg2Si precipitation, dissolution of Si within the aluminum matrix, and changes in the Si particle morphology (spheroidization). The ductility of the as-received grain refined non-modified (`NM'), grain refined and superheated at 900°C (`SH'), and melt thermal-treated grain refined (`MTT') A356.2 alloy castings can be improved considerably with solution heat treatment e.g. from ~6% in the as-cast non-modified casting to ~10% after 80 h solution treatment.

Jan 1, 2011

By William D. Oder, Seth H. Hamblin, Les R. Chernatskas, Jonathan L. Ernst

Large diameter drilled deep foundations are a widely utilized solution throughout North America and the world. Numerous design and construction techniques developed over the past 100 years have made this type of foundation a robust, reliable, and efficient foundation option to support a wide variety of structures. From bridges, to marine structures, to high-rise buildings, drilled shafts are a time-tested approach for all types of infrastructure projects. Yet, what remains ambiguous in the current state of engineering practice is how to respond when a shaft is constructed that, for potentially different reasons, may or may not meet the design requirements? In this case, what are the best practices for Contractors and Engineers when a structural, geotechnical, or material integrity issue arises during construction? In our experience the answers to these questions are not widely known, but are profoundly important so that engineers can have tools available to confidently and efficiently address concerns, and provide a path forward for the project. This paper seeks to answer the above questions by presenting details of different remediation approaches using the results of several case studies where structural and geotechnical engineering methods, combined with non-destructive integrity testing (NDT), were employed to evaluate the acceptance of “questionable” drilled shafts. Through multidisciplinary techniques like Cross-hole Sonic Logging and 3-D Tomography which enhance the resolution of anomalous zones and defects in concrete, the development of concrete strength estimates from non-destructive testing data, and executing innovative structural and geotechnical analyses to evaluate the as-built conditions, drilled shafts that might have historically been rejected were ultimately accepted by the project team. This paper presents a series of unique case studies that together depict a roadmap for a comprehensive approach to reliably evaluate and guide the industry to address these types of drilled shaft construction issues.

Oct 1, 2022

By S. Vennos

As a result of Synopsis 73-16 Dynadyne responded with an unsolicited proposal offering the Bureau of Mines to develop an ultra-low volume coal mine dust personal sampler. In the ensuing technical discussions the choice of a desirable volumetric rate became a focal point. While, the initial proposal was based on a volumetric rate in the area of 50 cc/min the Government expressed interest in a variety of mass flow rates ranging from 50 cc/min to 2000 cc/min. The physical characteristics such as weight, volume and configuration of a personal sampler are to a large extent - dependent on the operating volumetric rate. It became readily apparent that the optimum size of such an instrument as a function of volumetric rate was not known and that a study of the choice of optima was essential prior to beginning the development, Hence, the Government authorized a two phase approach to this project. Phase I was to include a Technical Evaluation Study of optimum characteristics in the range between 0. 1 to 2. 0 lpm. Based on these findings and in consultation with MESA personnel, the Bureau of Mines was to authorize the second phase that is, the development. Phase II, was to include the drawing of a set of performance specifications stating among others the desired operating volumetric rate. In this report, every effort was made not only to present the actual work done over the course of this development, but to reflect also our engineering "thinking" providing answers as to the "why" we preferred certain solutions over others. We believe that this added dimension is not only useful for the Government official evaluating this report, but also that the Government is entitled to it providing the official with an educational content useful in avoiding future costly repetitions of similar situations.

Jan 1, 1975

By R. A. Cattell

Progress of Bureau of Mines research related to oil and gas during the past fiscal year has been marked by the publication of more than 40 reports on the various phases of the work . These include papers dealing with the production of oil and gas , transportation of gas , chemistry and refining of petroleum , thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbons , and the processing and utiliza- tion of helium . As an additional service to Pennsylvania oil operators , a new suboffice was opened in Bradford , Pa . , during the year . With this addition , the work of the Petroleum and Natural Gas Branch of the Bureau of Mines is now conducted in two large stations , the Petroleum Experiment Station , Bartlesville , Okla . , and the Petroleum and Oil Shale Experiment Station , Laramie , Wyo . , and three field offices and laboratories at San Francisco , Calif . , Dallas , Tex . , and Franklin, Pa., and two suboffices, Wichita Falls, Tex., and the newly opened suboffice at Bradford, Pa. In addition, this Branch operates large-scale helium-production plants in Texas, Kansas, and New Mexico, and maintains ex- tensive helium-bearing gas reserves in Texas and New Mexico. All helium opera- tions are supervised from headquarters at Amarillo, Tex. A small headquarters staff is in Washington, D. C. A backward glance at the road traveled during the past several years by the Petroleum and Natural Gas Eranch of the Bureau of Mines brings out a general background for the events of the fiscal year 1949. Throughout the fiscal year 1945, the activities of the Branch were still mainly concerned with such war activities as making special field studies for the Petroleum Adminis- tration for War, finding ways of increasing rates of production, and supplying data pertaining to the manufacture of aviation and jet-propulsion fuels. A period of adjustment came in 1946, characterized by a turning from war to peace procedures and efforts to give wide distribution to technical facts ob tained in wartime research; also, there came a realization that the demands of war had broadened the horizons of research. This was emphasized in 1947, when a peacetime program was restored, based upon the long view of the Bureau's place as a research agency in oil and gas. Close attention was given to tech- nical detail in 1948, and emphasis was placed on maintaining a balance between the industrial need for technical knowledge and Governmental-research possi- bilities in the fields of (1) withdrawal of petroleum from natural deposits, (2) utilization of petroleum and its products, and (3) commercial utilization of helium. Studies of petroleum production and utilization and helium production and utilization are the normal functions of the Branch. These functions (sometimes expressed in different words) have been the mainstay of this organization since initiation of the work. The details of approach vary with changing conditions, but, fundamentally, the functions have been the same in both peace and war. The work of the past fiscal year has emphasized the advantages that accrue when Government and industry join in a wise use of technical and scientific knowledge gained through research. Outstanding evidence of the beneficial results of cooperative effort by the Bureau of Mines and various organizations is found in the following typical examples, the details of which are discussed in the body of this report. Working in close cooperation with operators along the Gulf Coast, the Natural Gasoline Association of America, and the National Association of Cor- rosion Engineers, the Bureau found, through field testing, that corrosion protection by means of chromates in high-pressure gas-condensate wells costs less than $1 per million cubic feet of gas produced. Laboratory experiments to measure the corrosion effects of carbonic and propionic acids on various steels and alloy steels gave data that will serve as guides in the selection of new. materials for the construction of well equipment to be tested by industry under actual service conditions.

Feb 1, 1950

By B. Panton, J. Carvalho, E. T. Brown

"A major consideration in the design of high capacity tiedown anchors for dam, bridge and tower foundations is the tensile resistance of the rock mass to pullout, typically as a result of overturning moments or hydrostatic uplift. Rock mass pullout capacity for installed anchors is developed from the tensile strength and fracture propagation properties of intact rock, the orientation and physical properties of the discontinuities and anchor confinement at depth. The typically assumed, but generally conservative, design approach is to calculate anchor pullout capacity using the dead weight of a uniformly shaped inverted “cone” with an assumed initiation point and breakout angle. In some cases, some tensile or shear strength is considered across the area of the assumed pullout cone, however, these strength estimates are based primarily on based on limited historic testing data, empirical relationships for rock mass strength developed for other applications, and engineering judgement.As an alternative to the current foundation anchor design method, this paper presents a new approach to the rock cone pullout problem using Discrete Fracture Networks (DFN) combined with numerical simulations. The simulations presented in the paper investigate the influence of fractures in a synthetic rock mass on ultimate anchor strength. In addition, the global influence on fracture network statistics on rock mass pullout failure is also discussed and it is contended that some of the aleatory and epistemic uncertainty inherent in the design of rock anchors can be reduced by considering fracture statistics in anchor design."

Jan 1, 2015

By Adnan A. Malik, Tadashi Maejima, Jiro Kuwano

"Previous studies revealed that the helix deflection reduced the end bearing capacity of screw pile in dense ground even if the installation process is completed with minimal soil disturbance. The ultimate end bearing capacity in dense ground is difficult to achieve during the full-scale pile load test due to the limitation of the loading system. Therefore, in the present study, model scale of testing is selected to investigate the effect of helix deflection on load settlement behavior of single helix screw pile under increasing stress level. It is observed from the test results that the applied surcharge pressure, which is used to simulate the effect of stress level, is decreased with increase in model ground thickness. This decrease in the stress level is due to the frictional resistance between the container wall and sand. It is also observed that the end bearing capacity of screw pile increases with the increase in stress level but at gradually decreasing rate. The test results indicated that the helix deflection during the pile load test should not be more than critical deflection (0.72 mm average) of the helix to avoid any reduction in the end bearing capacity of screw pile. The helix deflection, which is measured after the pile load tests are also compared with the equations of flat circular plate having uniformly distributed load over the plate with simply supported and fixed inner edges.INTRODUCTIONThe screw pile consists of a central steel shaft with one or more helices attached at different location on the central shaft. The installation mechanism of screw pile consists of torque and pushing force. The screw pile installation mechanism can affect the unit weight of the ground during its installation. This effect is small in cohesive soils but it is quite noticeable in loose to medium dense sands (Adams 2011; Santos et al. 2013). The pushing force should be controlled in such a manner that pile penetration should be at least 80% of the pitch of the helix, during each revolution (Perko, 2009)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Douglas A. Crum

The Taylor's friction circle method for slope stability analysis can be extended to incorporate multiple circles defining the slip surface in a failure mechanism so that it is a workable method for bearing capacity calculations of foundations and rotational failures of retaining walls and similar structures. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has further extended the multiple-circle method to include friction in the material strength and to utilize computational schemes such that this method can be programmed with optimization capabilities rather than being used as a graphical or semigraphical method. Some examples are given that demonstrate ultimate bearing capacity calculations of embedded foundations with eccentric loads and nearby slopes.

Jan 1, 2010

By W. S. Sanner

Seven samples were analyzed from the major reserves of the Bottom Red Ash bed, Northern anthracite field. The data show variations in thickness and geo-logic structure and in the amount of coal that can be recovered. Recovery of market-grade (less than 17 percent ash) coal is high for all samples, ranging from 76 tp 95 percent in the 3-1/4-by 9/16-inch sizes. The occurrence of coal containing less than 5 percent ash varies from 19.5 to as much as 57.5 percent. Crushing the coarse sizes to minus 9/16 inch increased recovery of market-grade coal in six of seven bed samples. Crushing released sufficient impurities to cause substantial increases in yield of coal containing less than 5 percent ash for all samples. Analyses of the float coal indicate that the quality of coal is comparable for all samples.

Jan 1, 1967

By J Nortier, J Dray

There is no single factor that determines the appropriate capacity for a mining project. It is driven by the size of the resource, the capacity of the market, the availability of capital, the availability of power, the availability of water, and a myriad of other considerations. There is also no single solution to the question of how big the project should be. However, to develop a project, the study team needs to select the configuration options that it regards as the best for the project. To be able to make this selection, the study team should consider the range of available options and do so at a level of detail that gives it confidence in the conclusion but does not lead to multiple detailed design exercises. Having considered the range of options, and with a clear definition of the project owner’s objectives and constraints, the work to be carried into feasibility studies can be focused appropriately. This paper discusses the process of completing strategic mine planning to identify project configuration options to assist in the selection of the processing plant throughput rate (Capacity Study) for a large greenfield open pit mine. The processes described in this paper allow for the basis of design to be set for subsequent studies that meets the objectives at a risk profile acceptable to the owner.

Jun 22, 2022

By Yi Luo

Subsidence events occurring above inactive room-and-pillar (R&P) mines, including abandoned mines or sealed portions of active mines, are classified as unplanned subsidence, because of their timing and distribution are unpredictable. When investigating such subsidence cases, many uncertainties exist and disputes often focused on whether the observed structural damages are caused by mine subsidence or other natural or artificial causes. However, solid evidence to identify the cause is often lacking. In order to conduct a complete and impartial investigation, thorough knowledge of subsidence theories and other ground control topics, as well as broad experience, are required.

Jan 1, 2011

By M. K. McCarter

Surface mining applies to extraction of mineral resources from water and sediments of rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans; from solutions circulating through broken rock and soil; and from rock and soil excavated from the earth. Surface mining is responsible for the majority of mineral production in the United States and a substantial portion of the world?s total production. This section deals specifically with extraction methods which employ mechanical processes in a relatively dry environment to free minerals from the earth. The following section, Section 15, deals exclusively with aqueous methods. With recognition of the importance of reclamation in all activities which temporarily disturb the earth?s ecosystems, it is appropriate to classify mechanical extraction methods as either deferred reclamation or concurrent reclamation. Deferred reclamation is necessary when the shape and logistics of the excavation require that it remain open throughout the productive life of he project. Upon exhaustion of economic reserves, the opening is then reclaimed in a manner consistent with public safety, environmental acceptability, and land use policy. Methods employing deferred reclamation are commonly referred to as open pit or quarry mining. Metallic ores, industrial minerals, and coal are all extracted using open pit methods. Typical examples are provided in Chapter 14.1.

Jan 1, 2008

By B Morey, J Gordon, P Mackenzie

Mount Tom Price Mine is peerless amongst Rio Tinto iron ore resources around the world. It has provided Hamersley Iron with premium quality, high lump yield haematite ore over the last four decades. The Brockman type bedded ore, containing bands of haematite and shale of varying thicknesses has been traditionally bulk mined to either high-grade or low-grade based on alumina cut-off grades. As open pit mining has progressed deeper into the orebody approaching the keels of the megastructure, increased structural complexity, chemical and physical variations in the ore, unfavourable ore presentation and reduced blending options have become an issue for grade control and may have serious impacts on product stockpiles. The grade blocks and boundaries must be accurately defined according to geological contacts and where identified, selective mining may be applied. Therefore in-pit geological mapping is the definite and ultimate guide to achieve target grades and grade predictions. Under this scenario, it is absolutely vital that the mine geology team ensures this geological knowledge is passed onto the related departments including mining crews as well as to the short- and long-term planners.

Jan 1, 2002

By Scott G. Britton

Mine exploitation is a broad subject whose focus is the technical skills or efforts needed for the extraction of mineral from a known ore body. Mine exploitation can be considered the very core of the mining engineering discipline. It begins at the conclusion of the exploration and development stages of mining and ends when the ore body is exhausted and the mine (or mines)closes and is reclaimed. Section 8 on mine exploitation is comprised of seven chapters: (1) classification of mining methods, (2) mine surveying and mapping, 3) systems engineering, (4) computer methods, (5) labor relations and training, (6) management and administration, and (7) mine closure, sealing, and abandonment. Each chapter focuses its efforts towards providing detailed and useful information for the engineer on basic mine exploitation principles. The information can be applied to a broad range of mining problems without regard to mineral type or mining method.

Jan 1, 2008

By V. D. Smar

The flotation process may be considered an interactive system consisting of many chemical, operational, and equipment variables. Changing anyone of these variables causes an overall system response change. This study examines the effects of simultaneously changing the operating variables of: (1) frother concentration and air flow rate, and (2) frother concentration and collector concentration. It is part of a comprehensive study to look at how changes in several of the major variables may be used to produce interactions which will allow the rougher flotation process to be optimized. Ultimate recovery, flotation rate, concentrate grade and froth quality, are used as the major evaluative criteria.

Jan 1, 1993

By S. J. Aresco

The Bureau of Mines has been active in promoting the purchase of coal for Government use under specifications that define the requirements in terms of heating value of the coal, expressed in British thermal units, and the composition as shown by proximate analyses. To these, when required, are added the ash-softening temperature, the free-swelling index, and the Hardgrove grindability index. Under most of these specification contracts the bidders guarantee the quality of the coal, and that guaranteed by the successful bidder becomes the standard of his contract. The deliveries are sampled in accordance with instructions4/ issued by the Bureau of Mines; the samples are analyzed in the Bureau laboratory to determine whether the coal is of the quality guaranteed by the contractor and, if it is not, a price adjustment is made. Analyses of the delivered coal and tipple samples (samples collected at mine tipples as coal is being loaded into railroad cars or trucks) provide valuable data for use in evaluating future bids. In addition, the continuous .sampling of coal as delivered is a check on the practical results obtained in burning the coal.

Jan 1, 1958

By Jan M. Mutmansky

Since 1973 when the first edition of the SME Mining Engineering Handbook was published, many significant changes have occurred in the US mining industry. The industry went through a fairly prosperous period immediately after 1973, but then many economic pressures came to bear on mining companies, particularly in the metal and coal branches of the industry. These pressures changed both the mining methods used and the general economics of the mining methods. As a result, the industry today is different in many ways titan it was in 1973. A general summary of some of the more important changes that have come about will be provided here as well as some assessment of the effects of these changes on the choices of mining methods. In the metal mining industry, the most significant trends were increased surface mining, the use of larger and more efficient equipment, and increased technology and automation. The primary impetus for these changes was unprecedented competition from foreign producers. In many cases, this competition came about because of the nationalization of foreign mines and the tendency for these mines to become a source of foreign exchange. Under these circumstances, the mines could be operated even though they were not profitable. As a result, domestic

Jan 1, 2008

Flinders Power, formerly NRG Flinders, is considering the possible use of low rank coal from Lake Phillipson, South Australia (SA) in its power stations at Port Augusta, SA. Typically, this coal contains about 35% moisture and 10% ash. Unfortunately, it also contains high levels of sodium (1% Na) and chloride (0.95% Cl) with a Na2O level in ash of 18.9%. Such levels cause serious problems during coal combustion, making the use of as-mined coal impractical for power generation. This paper describes the development of an aqueous leaching technique to remove 90% of the sodium and chloride and to yield a product with a Na2 O level in ash of less than 3%. Small-scale agitation leaching tests with good quality tap water at ambient temperatures showed that the coal needed to be crushed to minus 5.6 mm to obtain maximum removal of water-soluble sodium and chloride in 30 min. Leaching kinetics, but not the ultimate removal of salt, were enhanced by the use of higher temperatures (up to 150°C), but this was deemed uneconomic. Varying the pulp density between 20% and 50% had little effect on extractions and there was no benefit in multiple stage water washing. The best results by water leaching were 69%~74% extraction for sodium and 95%~97% for chloride, meaning that the sodium removal was well below the target level. From SEM examinations of the leached product it was concluded that the remaining sodium was organically bound to the carbon atoms in the coal. Further tests using aqueous solutions containing cation exchange additives such as calcium chloride (CaCl2) or ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) or sulphuric acid (H2SO4) showed that significantly enhanced sodium extractions were possible and target specifications were met. Two options, namely a single-stage and a two-stage leach, were then investigated. In a single-stage leach with additive, minus 5.6 mm coal was leached at 33%~50% solids for 30 min at ambient temperature and then filtered and washed with fresh water. This gave a sodium removal level of about 81% and a Na2O level in ash of about 5%. These levels do not quite meet tar-get specifications. In a two-stage leach, the coal was first leached with water alone without an additive as in the single stage leach, and the washed residue re-leached under similar conditions for about 5 min with an additive (CaCl2), and then filtered and washed. This gave a cumulative sodium removal of 96% and a Na2O level in ash of 1.4%~2.4%. These levels are well within target specifications.

Jan 1, 2014