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By David J. Mack

A SURVEY and critical appraisal of published information about Young's modulus was originally made by the writer because of a complete lack of information about this very important quantity in works on mechanics, physical metallurgy, physics, and other sciences. It was felt that a comprehensive summary of such information about Young's modulus might be of general interest and may suggest new problems or lines of attack on other problems that involve E. Hence this paper has been prepared even though it is only a review, with no new ideas or experimental data. The references are only those used in assembling the paper. No attempt was made to compile a complete bibliography on the subject of Young's modulus. CALCULATION OF YOUNG'S MODULUS FROM THEORETICAL OR EMPIRICAL CONSIDERATIONS Many attempts have been made to compute E from theoretical considerations. The earliest calculations were probably those of Tomlenson (1883) and Southerland (1891), but Fessenden 41,42 made extensive calculations a few years later and arrived at the relationship: [2E = 78. 101 (_L V] where V is the atomic volume. In 1923, Peczalski,43 working from the same stand-point but with more information available on atomic structure, arrived at an identical relationship, which he expressed as: [E=B(m) 2] where B is a constant of value about 8 • 10 7, p is density and m is atomic weight; the atomic volume, of course, being m/p. Portevin44 immediately pointed out that while the equations of Fessenden and Peczalski were true of the common metals, they gave low values for the refractory metals with high moduli (Fig. I). He showed (Fig. 2) that much better concordance was obtained by means of an empirical equation of the form: [E _ KT'Vb] where K is a constant; T the absolute melting point; V, atomic volume, and a and b constants of value approximately I and 2 respectively. This constant K in the Portevin equation is not necessarily the same for all elements, as shown by Thompson.45 Other equations for E based upon theoretical considerations have been derived by Honda and Yamada49 and Lasareff. 50 The most recent calculations of elastic moduli based upon quantum mechanics are probably those of Fuchs.46-48 He extended the method of Wigner and Seitz for calculating the lattice energy and compressibility of monovalent metals and computed the elastic constants of lithium,

Jan 1, 1945

By AIME AIME

NAPOLEON'S dictum that an Army travels on its stomach has not changed in this present war, but the things an Army's stomach calls for would be more than strange to Napoleon. Today one of the main articles of diet for the mechanized army is oil and gasoline, and the chief and most efficient source of 'apply overland is the pipe line. It was a flexible 4-in. pipe line that supplied the voracious appetite of tanks, trucks, jeeps, and planes across the North African desert. and it is the 1800-mile pipe line from Calcutta to Kunming, Yunnan Province in China, the longest in the world, that supplied oil and 100-octane gas for the trucks, tanks, Jeeps, and planes fighting on the Assam-Burma-China front in recent months. Completion of this approximately 1800-mile pipe line to China over rivers that had never been bridged, over hill that towered 9000 ft., and over swamps

Jan 1, 1945

By Frederic Benard

PRIoR to 1936, the Ontario Refining Co. received all incoming blister copper from The International Nickel Company's smelter in the usual form of 460-lb. cakes, or slabs. These were received in open cars in lots of 250 pieces. At the refinery the cakes were unloaded onto narrow- • gauge cars, for convenient handling and pickup by charging cranes. In March 1936, an investigation was started on the feasibility of transferring converter copper in the molten state from the smelter to the refinery anode furnaces, a distance of 1 1/4 miles. Although common in steel practice, the transportation of blister copper in this form had not previoisly been attempted and a preliminary study of the various factors involved was therefore necessary. For this purpose, a series of experiments was made in which molten copper, removed at different stages during the furnace cycle, was held in a small portable holding furnace. This vessel was essentially a refractory-lined steel cylinder provided with ports for filling and emptying, heated by an oil burner. Dimensions of the steel shell were 3 ft. 10 in. diameter by 7 ft. 3 in. long, and thickness of refractories depended on the design and combination used for the particular experiment. The vessel was filled with approximately 2 1/2 tons of copper at a predetermined temperature, the lining having been preheated to a definite point by means of an oil burner. All openings were well luted and temperature readings were made every 15 min. by means of an immersion-type thermocouple. In this manner the rate of heat loss resulting with different refractory design could be developed. The ratio of exterior surface to weight of metal was taken into consideration in comparing the experimental results with what might be expected for a full-sized unit, and observations were also made on type and degree of slag accretion. It was not possible to get as much information on this latter point as desirable, but all evidence showed that the problem would be control of slag build-up rather than attack on refractories. From the information derived, and in consultation with the engineering staff of the supplying company, an order was placed for the first

Jan 1, 1944

Papers in Classes A-Metal Mining, B-Milling and Concentration, H-Industrial Minerals, and I-Mining Geology are distributed in MINING TECHNOLOGY, which is issued every other month. Papers in Classes C-Iron and Steel Division, D-Nonferrous Metallurgy and E-Institute of Metals Division are distributed in METALS TECHNOLOGY, which is issued twice quarterly. Papers in Class G-Petroleum Division are distributed in PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, which is issued every other month. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS in Classes F-Coal Division, J--Mineral Industry Education Division, K¬-Mining Administration, and 1-Geophysics, are issued as separate pamphlets. Contributions are papers that when printed or mimeographed are available but only on request.

Jan 1, 1944

By V. C. Perini

The North Central Texas district as herein defined includes the counties of Brown, Callahan, Coleman, Comanche, Coryell, Eastland, Erath, Fisher, Hamilton, Haskell, Hood, Jones, Lampasas, Mills, Nolan, Palo Pinto, Parker, San Saba, Shackelford, Stephens, Stonewall, Summer-ville, Taylor, Throckmorton and Wise. These counties as listed are the counties of District 7B, State Railroad Commission. In the new designation of districts for the Transactions, the North Central Texas district includes most, but not all, of the counties of the previously classified West Central Texas district. This district covers the south central crest and the west flank of the Bend flexure north of the Llano uplift. The west flank of the Bend flexure is on the east boundary of the Permian Basin of West Texas. The greater part of the oil and gas produced in this district has been from Pennsylvanian strata. Some oil and gas has been produced from the lower Permian (by the latest, selection of the Pennsyl-vanian-Permian boundary) and minor amounts from the Mississippian and Ordovician sediments. Increasingly important quantities of oil and gas are to be expected from the older sediments by deeper development in proven fields and by new discoveries. Most of the oil and gas in the district has accumulated in localized, well-defined structural traps in limestone and sandstone reservoirs and in traps due to stratigraphic changes in sedimentation, mainly porosity traps in limestone and sandstone lenses, both usually associated with some structural feature. These features are found by surface and subsurface geological structural mapping, by core drilling and by geophysical surveying. Geochemical methods are also the basis for some wildcatting. The demand for sweet crude oil from this district is firm for local and national consumption, but the market price for the oil remains practically the same as in 1941. The price is not adequate to meet the requirements of the average independent operator with the continued advance in production, tievelopment and wildcatting costs. Stripper wells are being plugged daily and should be jealously saved for the future local and national reserves, especially in view of the fact that new discoveries of commercially important oil and gas reserves are not keeping pace with consumption. An expected economic disruption attendant upon the national war effort has arisen and continues in the future outlook for this district. The lack and delay of securing replacement parts for almost all oil-field equipment has handicapped and delayed operations and has decreased efficiency in wildcatting, development and production. Sufficient experienced drilling, scientific and office personnel is lacking because of inductions in the armed forces and migration to war industries during the period before manpower conservation became effective. The office personnel of the average oil and gas producer continues to be swamped by the increasing demands for reports by state and federal bureaus. An average of IQ days

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Jan 1, 1944

By A. R. Denison

Several productive areas in the Mid-Con-tinent are broadly and briefly examined with respect to the present depth of drilling on productive structures, and the thickness of sediments remaining untested. Evidence is offered to show that a vertical mile to two miles of untested but prospective formation remain within reach of the drill. In no case would a well deeper than 15,000 ft. be required, and in most cases to no greater depth than 10,000 ft. Recent outstanding success of deeper prospecting in West Texas demonstrates the merits of deeper drilling on known structure. Introduction New fields discoverd during I942 equaled or exceeded the number in any preceding year. The total amount of oil found by these discoveries was less than in any previous year, for which accurate records are available. This means that the pools now being discovered are much smaller than in past years. This is to be expected, since the prospects available during 1942 were largely those overlooked in the earlier years and therefore represent a second or third order (in quality) of structural feature. This failure to find pools of good size and quality raises grave doubt as to the security of our future oil supply. With military needs rising almost daily, and the period of heaviest con- sumption in our war effort still in the future, there is even a growing doubt as to our ability to supply the amount needed for our ultimate victory. This does not mean that our reserves are inadequate, but rather that our "capacity to produce" may be inadequate. Lacking large fields with flush production, our capacity to produce is rapidly approaching our current needs. ,Since the industry is unable to find the large new fields necessary to keep a safe margin of "capacity to produce," other means are needed. It seems obvious that one of these should be deeper prospecting on the large, proven, productive structural features now known. The exploratory wildcat is drilled primarily in search of a trap and the reason for failure to find oil and gas in nine out of ten cases is due to the absence of a suitable trap under the drill site. Therefore, deeper drilling on a known structural feature that is productive largely eliminates the greatest hazard in wildcat drilling. While by no means all the oil known today is found in structural traps—in fact, some have estimated that less than half is so located— the fact remains that structural traps are far more commonly the oil fields that have multiple horizons of production superimposed one over the other. Outstanding examples are the Eldorado field in Kansas, the Tonkawa and Cushing fields in Oklahoma, the Louden and Salem pools of Illinois, and the richest and most prolific of all structural traps, the Long Beach, Ven-tura and other similar fields of California.

Jan 1, 1944

By F. W. Rols-Hausen, F. W. Jessen

It is the purpose of this paper to present data on brines occurring in the Frio formation of the Texas Gulf Coast, and to show how their composition varies, (1) with depth below the surface, (2) with depth below the top of the formation, and (3) along the approximate strike. The brines vary in chloride content from 3,180 to 73,000 p.p.m., though the average salinity of the salt waters is shown to vary with total depth; the concentration being 35,000 to 40,000 p.p.m. at 3500 to 5500 ft., slightly less than 50,000 p.p.m. chloride at 5500 to 6500 ft. and average 38,000 to 40,000 below 6500 feet. From the analyses available, it appears that the highest concentration of salts occurs in the upper 300 ft. of the formation, while lower salinity is found with increasing depth below this point. The salt waters from wells in Starr County show less concentration of dissolved salts than in any other group of wells farther north along the strike. In all, 116 analyses from 63 fields and 14 wildcats, from depths ranging from 1300 to 11,400 ft. below the surface and from z to 3240 ft. below the top of the Frio, are recorded. Introduction Brines have been studied for many Years in an attempt to solve some of the geologic and production problems associated with the production of oil and gas. One practical application of study of . water analyses is the correlation of waters occurring above, in, or below the producing sand in the same field or throughout the same formation. The Frio formation, the series of sands and shales occurring below the Marginulina zone and above the Vicksburg, is one of the major oil and gas-producing formations in the Texas Gulf Coast. Fossils are rare or absent in the upper Frio throughout most of the area. When available, cuttings and cores, and electric logs were used to determine the top of the Frio. A change in lithology was used to determine this point in most of the wells, and fossils were used in some of the deep wells. It is realized that a change in lithology is not perfect for correlation purposes over long distances and some of the trends may be influenced by the inability to differentiate between the nonfossiliferous Marginulina zone and the Frio. It underlies virtually all the area shown on the accompanying map (Fig. I). Although it is not productive in the updip facies, it has been explored to a limited degree below I2,000 ft. Further more, toward the coast line future drilling to deeper depths should encounter this formation. Although thousands of wells have penetrated or drilled entirely through the formation, very few water samples have been secured from the many sands occurring in this formation and analyzed. Previous Investigation No previous published study has been made of the chemical composition and concentration of waters from the Frio formation. However, one water analysis

Jan 1, 1944

By Parke A. Dickey

Potential differences between strata of shale and sandstone have been recognized for about years, and they form the basis of the electrical logging of oil wells. Hitherto these potentials have been ascribed solely to electrochemical reactions caused by the disturbing effects of the water in the drill hole through which they are generally measured. Observations by the author in wells empty of water and in a mine shaft suggest that potential differences between sandstones and shales are natural and specific properties of the rocks, although they are modified in measurement by the disturbing effects of the water in the drill hole. The cause of these potentials probably is to be sought in the relative polar adsorptive capacities of quartz and clay particles. Introduction The existence of potential differences in the surface of the earth has been known for some time, and their measurement has facilitated the discovery of geological discontinuities such as ore bodies. The technique of measurement has been well established.'-a In measurements in oil wells, it has been found that the potential of shales with respect to some arbitrary reference is very nearly constant in any one well, at least below the zone to which meteoric water has gained access. Sandstones and some other types of sedimentary rocks have a difference of potential with respect to shale that is negative and may attain a value of 200 millivolts or more. The difference of potential, as usually measured commercially with water in the hole, is distributed over about one foot vertically at the top and bottom contacts of the sandstones. The sharpness of the curve at the formation contacts can be improved by using a short electrode that is close to the wall of the hole. These potentials generally have been ascribed to the disturbing effects of the water in the drill hole. Potentials have been found, however, in wells in which no water was present. In the course of experiments in electrical logging in Pennsylvania, carried out by the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, observations were made of several phenomena that hitherto have not been described, to the author's knowledge, in the published literature. The potential differences across the contacts of sandstone and shale are called in this paper "natural potentials," as distinguished from the potentials caused by electroendosmosis (electrofiltration) and concentration differences, which will be discussed subsequently. Potentials in Cored Well In the spring of 1942, the author measured the potentials in an exploratory well (Day 13, near Grand Valley, Pa.) which had been cored with diamond tools. The potentials were first measured with fresh water in the hole. A null balance potentiometer was used in this and all the other measurements described in this paper. One nonpolarizing porous pot electrode, containing copper sulphate solution and crystals surrounding a pure copper elec-

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By C. Williams, D. V. Carter

During 1943 five oil fields and two gas-condensate fields were discovered in the East and East Central Texas district. The New Hope field, discovered by Tide Water-Seaboard in Franklin County, is the most important oil discovery since the Hawkins field in 1940. At the close of the year two oil sands were producing and two additional oil sands were being tested. The gas-condensate fields of Appleby in Nacog-doches County and the Stewards Mill field in Freestone County had only one producing well each. The Carthage field was extended 3 miles north and 4 miles west. Another well that was testing at the year end indicated a probable eastward extension of several miles. The Quitman field, in Wood County, was the most active from the standpoint of drilling operations. Approximately 48 wells were complcted during the year. The second and third most active fields were Hawkins field, Wood County, and Kildare field, Cass County, respectively. Wartime restrictions of material, together with manpower shortage and Federal spacing regulations, reduced the number of oil and gas-well completions from 265 in I942 to 171 in 1943. This represents a drop of 35 percent, or approximately 1/3, enough to replace the 531 producing wells abandoned in the district during the year. No changes were made in the price of crude oil in the district in 1943. The district produced 177,652,940 bbl. of condensate and oil during 1943. This represents an increase of approximately 11 per cent compared with the previous year. The East Texas field, which is the largest and most important field in the district, had an annual production of 128,568,647 bbl. of oil, which is approximately 6.5 per cent more than the previous year, and represents 72 per cent of the district's production of condensate and oil for the year. The district had an estimated basic daily allowable of approximately 509,000 bbl. of oil on Dec. 31, 1943. The entire district produced approximately 30 pcr cent of the state's production for the year 1943. The Hawkins field, Wood County, was operated 271 days during the year and with an average daily production of approximately 52,488 bbl. for the year. This field, which is the second largest in the district, produced 14,224,164 bbl, of oil during the year. Changes in annual production in certain fields in the district can be attributed to their ability to produce at higher rates, the demand, and transportation facilities in the war effort. The East Texas field showed an over-all decrease in reservoir pressure of 8.30 lb. during the year. Indications were that through the first quarter of 1944 the return of salt water to the reservoir was having a beneficial effect. It is hoped that, as more and more water is returned to the reser-

Jan 1, 1944

By W. H. Hough, P. B. Leavenworth

Development in the Upper Texas Gulf Coast during 1943 resulted in the discovery of 11 new fields as compared with 12 discovered in the same area during I942. Of the 11 new fields, eight are classed as oil and/or condensate and three as gas fields. In addition to the new discoveries, several more or less important new horizons and extensions were encountered in some of the older fields, as noted in the text under the heading "New Pays and Extensions.'' Drilling During the year, 418 wells were drilled, as compared with 356 drilled during 1942. Of these, 323 were field wells, of which 188 produced oil, 21 were gas wells and 114 were dry holes. The remaining 95 viere wildcats, 12 of which produced oil, 4 produced gas and 79 dry holes. Distribution of themwildcats with respect to the various trends may be summarized as follows: over the 91,340,492 bbl. produced in the same area during 1942. The production statistics in the text and the accompanying tables include condensate or distillate as oil production, because many Gulf Coast fields produce oils with a wide variation of specific gravities, all of which are commingled in pipe lines. Table 3 shows by counties all of the drilling and production" data applicable to this particular area. Outstanding Fields of 1943 The Upper Texas Gulf Coast covered in this report has 178 more or less active oil and gas fields, including the 1943 discoveries. Of these Table 4 lists those that were most important from the standpoint of production. Each of these fields pro duced in excess of one million barrels of oil during 1943. Some of the interesting facts to be noted from this list of some 26 oil fields are: (I) four of the fields— namely, Conroe, Hastings, Friendswood and Thompson—each produced more than 10 million barrels during 1943, whcrcas Conroe and Hastings were the only fields that produced 10 million barrels during 1942; (2) some of the older fields (discovered prior to 1920), such as Barbers Hill, West Columbia, and Hull, are still producing in excess of one million barrels annually; (3) some of the fields more than doubled their 1942 production—e.g., Anahuac and Friendswood. The large increase in production in practically all instances is the result of increased allowables from wells drilled prior to 1943 and

Jan 1, 1944

By R. B. Gilmore

The North Texas district, as herein defined, includes the counties of Archer, Baylor, Clay, Cooke, Foard, Hardeman, Jack, Kiiox, Montague, Wichita, Wil-barger, and Young. Jack and Young Counties are included for the first time so that this district will correspond with District No. 9 of the Texas Railroad Commission. This area covers generally the crest and south flank of a system of buried mountains known as the Red River uplift. The oil and gas accumulations along this feature are in traps, which, although localized by structures incident to the regional uplift, usually are modified by stratigraphic changes in the sediments. The structural deformation caused by the Red River uplift is modified by the Rend arch, which is a broad anticline plunging northward from the Llano uplift in central Texas through Young and into Archer Counties. The fields in southern Archer, southeastern Baylor, southwestern Clay, and western Jack Counties arc on the extreme north end and along the flanks of the Bend arch and have generally the same type of oil and gas accumulation as the other fields in this district. Recent exploration has been along the flanks of the Fort Worth syncline, which is east of the Bend arch and south of the Red River uplift and extends into southeastern Clay and southwestern Montague Counties and along the eastern part of Jack County. The larger part of past oil and gas produc- tion has come from Pennsylvanian strata, with less important amounts lrom the Permian, and minor quantities from the Mississippian and Ordovician. Developments during 1943 About 1100 wells were drilled in the district during 1943 and more than 500 oil wells were completed, an increase from 1942. of approximately 12 per cent in the number of successful drilling operations of the total wells drilled. The addition of Jack and Young Counties to this district accounts for part of this increase, almost 150 wells being completed in the two counties. Production increased slightly over the previous year as a result of an increase in the number of producing wells and a greater demand for this high-gravity, sweet crude oil. The average depth of discovery wells was about 400 ft. deeper than in 1942. Although more discoveries produced from horizons below the base of the Strawn series than from those above the Straw, the deeper horizons, including the Bend series of the Pennsylvanian, the Mississippian limestone and Ellenburger of the Ordo-vician, largely were dissappointing from the viewpoint of major additions to oil reserves. The largest single addition to the reserves was in the basal Strawn sand in the Walnut Bend field, Cooke County. During the year, 31 wells were completed, both in the field and as cxtensions. The most active arca Was Jack County, in which five fields or potential fields were discovered, although only 44 oil wells were completed.

Jan 1, 1944

By V. C. Perini

The North Central Texas district as herein defined includes the counties of Brown, Callahan, Coleman, Comanche, Coryell, Eastland, Erath, Fisher, Hamilton, Haskell, Hood, Jones, Lampasas, Mills, Nolan, Palo Pinto, Parker, San Saba, Shackelford, Stephens, Stonewall, Summer-ville, Taylor, Throckmorton and Wise. These counties as listed are the counties of District 7B, State Railroad Commission. In the new designation of districts for the Transactions, the North Central Texas district includes most, but not all, of the counties of the previously classified West Central Texas district. This district covers the south central crest and the west flank of the Bend flexure north of the Llano uplift. The west flank of the Bend flexure is on the east boundary of the Permian Basin of West Texas. The greater part of the oil and gas produced in this district has been from Pennsylvanian strata. Some oil and gas has been produced from the lower Permian (by the latest, selection of the Pennsyl-vanian-Permian boundary) and minor amounts from the Mississippian and Ordovician sediments. Increasingly important quantities of oil and gas are to be expected from the older sediments by deeper development in proven fields and by new discoveries. Most of the oil and gas in the district has accumulated in localized, well-defined structural traps in limestone and sandstone reservoirs and in traps due to stratigraphic changes in sedimentation, mainly porosity traps in limestone and sandstone lenses, both usually associated with some structural feature. These features are found by surface and subsurface geological structural mapping, by core drilling and by geophysical surveying. Geochemical methods are also the basis for some wildcatting. The demand for sweet crude oil from this district is firm for local and national consumption, but the market price for the oil remains practically the same as in 1941. The price is not adequate to meet the requirements of the average independent operator with the continued advance in production, tievelopment and wildcatting costs. Stripper wells are being plugged daily and should be jealously saved for the future local and national reserves, especially in view of the fact that new discoveries of commercially important oil and gas reserves are not keeping pace with consumption. An expected economic disruption attendant upon the national war effort has arisen and continues in the future outlook for this district. The lack and delay of securing replacement parts for almost all oil-field equipment has handicapped and delayed operations and has decreased efficiency in wildcatting, development and production. Sufficient experienced drilling, scientific and office personnel is lacking because of inductions in the armed forces and migration to war industries during the period before manpower conservation became effective. The office personnel of the average oil and gas producer continues to be swamped by the increasing demands for reports by state and federal bureaus. An average of IQ days

Jan 1, 1944

By L. B. Herring, Harold Decker

The South Texas area, discussed herein, represents districts 2 and 4 of the Texas Railroad Cominission and extends from Jackson, Lavaca, and Gonzales Counties on the northeast to the Rio Grande River, comprising a total of 26 counties.$ The present boundaries of this district do not coincide with those of earlier reports published in the annual volumes of Petroleum Development and Technology. The war, in its various ramifications, determined and controlled all the phases of the oil and gas industry. Priorities for material and governmental subsidies determined all new operations. New Pools In our opinion, the combine' quantity of crude and distillate reserves added in '943 approached Or possibly exceeded the amount produced. Thirty-five new pools were added to the area' Of these, five have significant reserves and ten offer possibilities of containing consequential reserves. The largest proven reserve discovered during the year was the Slick pool, on the DeWitt-Goliad County line. This is also the most important Wilcox discovery to date in the area. The most significant extension was at Willimar, Willacy County. Other important extensions were developed at Agua Dulce, Seeligson, and Odem. Except for the Porter field, in Karnes County, the Laredo trend, which produces lrom the Jackson and Yegua, proved very disappointing, and this pool is o:C secondary importance. The Scott and Hopper pool, Brooks County, has only orie well, but offers excellent possibilities of becoming an important discovery. It represents at this time the major Frio discovery of the year. The Hobson pool, Karnes County, is not a major reserve, but can be classed as important in that it produces at a shallow depth from the Wilcox. This proves that the potential area of production for this zone occupies a broad trend. Gas and Condensate During the year construction was begun on only one recycling plant, this being in the Sejita field, Duval County. Several others were colltemplated, but no actual operations were begun. The most important development in recycling was the rebuilding of old plants to allow for the fractiona-tion of isopentane, n-butane, isobutane, and propane. Heretofore all pentanes plus have been marketed as cLdistillate,n only a minor portion of the butanes being isolated and sold for fuel purposes. All these new the except propane, are considered vital to the war effort and propane is being marketed as fuel gas. In other instances propane is being isolated and then pumped back into the gas reservoirs for storage. It is anticipated that the demands for this product will increase in the future. Drilling in the Wilcox trend during the year showed the existence of valuable gas

Jan 1, 1944