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It is always the case with heavy and cheap materials that the area within which they can be economically used depends upon the cost of transportation, and in those days of poor roads and no mechanical means of haulage on them, coal could only be moved a few miles from the mine by any other means than water. The need of better means of transport to the areas west of the mountains had been urged by Washington and many other leaders, but the first turnpike over the Alleghenies only reached the Ohio River at Wheeling, W. Va. in 1818. The James River and Kanawha road reached the Ohio in 1831, that from Winchester, Va. to Parkersburg in 1838, and the road through the Cumberland Gap was completed in 1797. None of these affected the coal industry excepting indirectly by building up some of the river towns which coal could reach. The inadequacy of roads alone to carry the traffic of the rapidly growing interior communities was demonstrated only a few years after the National Pike was completed, and in the early 1820's several of the states embarked upon the construction of a canal system, which had been under discussion for some years. The Erie Canal was opened in 1825 from Lake Erie to the Hudson River through New York; Pennsylvania, Virginia and Maryland had already started similar projects designed to bring traffic to their principal cities from the interior. The Pennsylvania Canal was started from Columbia, as a railroad extended from Philadelphia to that point, and it followed the Susquehanna and Juniata Rivers to Hollidaysburg; thence to Johnstown, a distance of 36 miles, where it consisted of partly railroad and partly inclined planes, the boats being hauled up, and lowered down the planes; from Johnstown the canal followed the Conemaugh, Kiskiminitas and Allegheny Rivers to Pittsburgh, 104 miles. Boats first reached Pittsburgh by this route in 1834. The Chesapeake and Potomac Canal followed the Potomac River from a point above Alexandria above the falls, to Cumberland. This canal was chartered in the eighteenth century and a portion of it was used by traffic in 1800. It was too small to be of much use and was abandoned, and later after many legal and financial vicissitudes was completed to Cumberland, traffic from there starting late in 1850. This date, however, was long after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad had been completed to

Jan 1, 1942

The earliest reference to coal in Tennessee is that by Dr. Walker in 1750 (see p. 18) where he saw it near the present site of Middlesboro. The next reference found is in 1798 when Morse stated, "some of these mountains, particularly in the, Cumberland, or Great-Laurel Ridge, are the most stupendous piles in the United States. They abound in ginseng and coal."' There must have been many places where it was seen in that interval, but nearly as long a time elapsed before Morris, in 1834, said that "fine beds of stone-coal exist in both East and Middle Tennessee."2 In a description of the Dover Iron Works, on the left side of the Cumberland River, a few miles above Dover, in Stewart County, it was said that "80 hands were employed in digging and transporting stone coal" and that the "plant had been running at least since Oct. 2, 1834."3 While doubtless coal had been used locally, this is probably the first use of it commercially in the state. The consumption of stone coal was 4,000 tons per year. In this same geological report openings of coal are mentioned near Battle Creek, Marion County, and in Bledsoe and Rhea Counties, where it was being used locally by blacksmiths; some other places were being worked near the turnpike road from Kingston to the Crab-Orchard, the product being hauled three miles to the Tennessee River and loaded in barges; farther west in. White County several outcrops were found. In Fentress County, several pits had been opened, the coal being sent down the Obey and Cumberland Rivers, and openings were also seen in Morgan, Anderson, Roane, Warren, Hamilton and Franklin Counties. The writer had hoped to publish an account of the iron works in the state but was unable to obtain the necessary information. He was told by an old iron-master, Mr. E. Embree, that

Jan 1, 1942

By C. A. Hartinagel

During 1941, the total production of crude oil in New York state was 5,185,000 bbl. This represents a small increase over the average for the past five years. From 1921, when the annual production of the state amounted to only 988,000 bbl., there was a regular annual increase in production (excepting one or two years) until the 5,000,000-bbl. mark was reached in 1937, After more than 20 years of oil recovery by flooding methods, it was generally believed, until a few months ago, that the rate of production was nearly at its peak and within a few years the fields would experience a gradual decline as the thicker sands became exhausted and the thinner ones could be worked only at increasing costs. As a result of the present emergency, however, unusual efforts are being made, in spite of higher costs of operation, to increase the output of Pennsylvania grade oil, to which the New York product belongs. Since most of any increased production would be obtained by flooding, and since floods travel slowly, no large increase in production can be expected for some months to come. During the first year, 10 or 15 per cent increase could be obtained, but maximum production, an increase of perhaps 40 per cent, could not be expected until some time during the second or third year. In the Allegany fields, which account for two thirds of the state's oil production, 1246 wells, including water-intake wells, were drilled during the year; 390 more than in the preceding year and 590 more than in 1939. It is evident that much of the best oil territory has already been developed. As producers move toward edge properties and thinner sands, returns will be smaller, whereas costs remain the same or, under war conditions, become higher. It is estimated that at least 60 million barrels of oil is in sight and will be produced from the thicker sands by present recovery methods. In the thinner sands and edge properties, some 35 million additional barrels can be produced at a profit only if prices become higher. In view of the fact that there is little hope of finding new oil pools in New York, one of the future problems of the oil producer will be to obtain adequate returns for increased production costs. The year started with a posted price of $2.15 per barrel of crude. There were five successive price increases until the high of the year was reached at $2.98 on Aug. 14. Eight days later the Office of Price Administration directed that the price be reduced to the June level of $2.75 a barrel, which remained in effect to the end of the year. With rising costs of operation, it is feared that many of the smaller properties cannot continue production unless the Federal price cut is revoked. During the year, Allegany Refiners Inc., a local enterprise founded in 1933, with plant at Bolivar, western Allegany County, increased its refining capacity from 1000 to 1500 bbl. daily. At the same time equipment was added to make the plant a complete lubricating-oil refinery, including facilities for the refining of wax into the finished product. Previous to the enlargement, it was necessary to sell the wax

Jan 1, 1942

By Benjamin N. Webber

THE peninsula of Nicoya contains virtually all of the known manganese deposits of Costa Rica. These are south and west of the Tempisque River, which flows across the peninsula near its juncture with the mainland. This peninsula forms the westernmost part of the province of Guanacaste, which is the northern of the two Pacific Coast provinces of Costa Rica. The larger villages are connected by ox-cart roads and trails. The area may be covered on horseback without difficulty except during the rainy season, when rivers are in flood and difficult to ford. This is particularly true of the Rio Seco-Guayjiniquil area, where there are no inhabitants and few open trails through the tropical jungle. Santa Cruz and Sardinal are served by the Taca Airlines, two planes a week from San Jose and Puntarenas. The port of Puntarenas has excellent loading facilities but none are available nearer the manganese districts; there ore must be lightered to vessels standing offshore. PHYSIOGRAPHY In Costa Rica there are three physiographic divisions: (I) the central plateau (Mesa Central), a somewhat dissected lava platform upon which are superimposed volcanic peaks, some of which are still active: (2) the Atlantic low-lands and (3) the Pacific lowlands. The peninsula of Nicoya and the larger part of the province of Guanacaste lie within the Pacific low lands. The term "lowland" indicates relation to the central plateau, as the peninsula of Nicoya is largely mountainous. The mountains of Nicoya form the southern extremity of a range of low hills, which are almost continuous along the Costa Rican coast to the Nicaraguan border. The coast line shows evidence of subsidence. The Gulf of Nicoya obviously is the drowned valley of the Tempisque River. The west coast of Nicoya shows many rocks, shoals, bays, inlets and small islands as evidence of a sea encroachment. The altitude of the manganese deposits ranges from o to 800 ft. Topography is of the mature type of wide valleys and low hills, often with abrupt slopes. The climate is tropical and humid; rainfall of 125 in. falls largely between Sept. I and Jan. I. Vegetation often is very dense, the Rio Seco-Guayjiniquil area being truly tropical jungle, containing many hardwoods. HISTORY AND PRODUCTION The production of manganese ore in Costa Rica apparently dates from the first World War. It reached a peak of about 10,000 tons in the year 1919, then declined rapidly. Evidence of this period of prospecting has rotted away or been swallowed by the jungle. The war now in progress apparently revived the interest in Costa Rican manganese and has encouraged further prospecting. Deposits long known have been redenounced and trails have been cut through the jungle to them. Many new deposits have been discovered in the last

Jan 1, 1942

By Aloys H. Wohlrab

[THE conditions that govern the selection of a suitable type of detachable bit for the small isolated mine, for rock work and tunnel contracting and for the large mine are quite dissimilar, therefore intelligent recommendation of a particular make of detachable bit must involve consideration of many factors. Small, isolated mines may find advantageous a detachable bit that a larger mine cannot afford to use, because of more efficient conventional steel sharpening and steel-distribution practice, but a small mine may of be able to adopt the practice of larger mines because of necessary capital expendites for equipment for detachable-bit sharpening and shanking. The perfect detachable bit, suitable for all conditions, has n yet been developed. CONVENTIONAL DRILL BIT IN USE That drilling speed increases as the hit gauge decreases is well known, but since small-hole drilling is the exception rather than the rule the rate of such increase is probably not so generally recognized. Tests married out by Holman Brothers Limited1 with 7/8-in. show that when bit sizes are reduced from. 1 ½ in. 1 3/8 in., and 1 3/16 in., to 1 3/8 in., 1¼ in., and it' in., respectively, the volume of the hole is15 per cent less and the drilling speed 4q per cent higher. Recent tests by the United States Bureau of Mines2,3in hard, uniform basalt showed that a reduction in average gauge from 2.077 to 1.826 in., a difference of 0.251 in., gave an increased drilling speed of 65 per cent. The limits to which a drill hole may be extended depend upon the loss in gauge. Since the conventional bit with 5° and 14° clearances did not possess sufficient reaming edge to permit the smaller gauge changes that were required for small-hole drilling, experiments were made in bit construction with a view to correcting this deficiency. This resulted in the adoption of the full reaming cross bit (having full Carr characteristics) by some mines.4 In order to drill holes having a minimum taper from the collar to the bottom of the hole, full reaming center-hole cross bits with 90° cutting angles, 5° and I4° wing tapers, forged on 7/8-in. quarter-octagon drill rods, are used in the conventional drill-steel practice at Hollinger. In the steel shop close attention is given to the condition of the dies and dollies, which, combined with a rigid inspection of the finished bit, ensures as nearly a perfect bit as can be forged economically. Shop practices and costs have been discussed in earlier papers.5,6 The method by which the radii for the special dies used for forging bits of different gauge diameter are obtained so that the points and reaming edges cut circles of the same diameter has been discussed by Hibbert.7 REQUIREMENTS FOR DETACHABLE BIT FOR HOLLINGER Under these circumstances, it was apparent that it would be difficult to introduce a detachable bit that could successfully compete with the conventional bit already in]

Jan 1, 1942

By Doll. H. G.

THIS paper discusses a method and apparatus for determining the dip of formations traversed by a drill hole, by means of electrical measurements in the hole. The process consists in recording the Spontaneous Potentials present along three oriented generatrices in the hole, By comparison of the three curves thus obtained, after application of a correction factor to compensate for any deviations of the hole, the dip angle and the dip direction are determined. Excellent accuracy is obtained for dip angles over 10°. Because the method is simple and the apparatus rugged, the measurements are rapid and reliable; consequently, they can be made at all the levels that are of interest at any time after the well has been drilled. Mechanical cores are not needed to evaluate the dips. A convenient, time-saving procedure is to perform the dipmeter survey at the time the electrical log is taken, using for both operations the same cable and truck. Actual examples of results obtained in wells of the Gulf Coast area are given.

Jan 1, 1942

By H. F. Winham

THE history, development, subsurface geology, production, economics and estimated reserves are discussed in this paper. The Magnolia structure is an anticline with a known maximum structural relief at 372 ft., and the areal extent of the producing acreage is 4494 acres. Production is obtained from the Smackover oölitic lime and 116 successful wells have been drilled. The field, which was developed on 4o-acre spacing, has been under strict control. It is believed to be producing with a strong water drive. To date it has produced more than eighteen million barrels and the estimate of ultimate recovery is 220 million barrels. EARLY HISTORY The Magnolia field is in Columbia County, Arkansas, T. 17 S., R. 19 and 20 W. Various geologists had long been interested in this general area, and as early as 1921, John F. Magale was able to define a surface structure. The first wildcat, one of the first in Columbia County, was drilled in 1923 by Mid-States Oil Co., in sec. 10, T. 17 S., R. 20 W. This well was about 1 ½ miles northwest of the Kerlyn Oil Company's discovery well and was based on surface geological work done by jewel and Dobie. Subsequently, several shallow wells that were not carried below the Upper Cretaceous beds were drilled in the immediate area of the discovery well, but none of them contained any commercial showings of oil or gas. In the latter part of 1935, Elam and Magale (or Southwood) Garrett No. I was located in sec. 13, T. 17 S., R. 20 W., ¾ mile east of the discovery well. It was drilled to a total depth of 4018 ft. in the lowermost Glen Rose beds but failed to obtain any showings of oil or gas. Interest had been stimulated in this general area, however, by the discovery of several oil fields, mainly Glen Rose oil production in the Rodessa field in Louisiana in 1935, Smackover lime production in Snow Hill in May 1936, production from the Cotton Valley formation in Schuler in 1037, and Smackover lime production from the Buckner field in November 1937. With this background and subsequent seismic work, which was carried on partly because the old shallow wells drilled in the township had shown evidence of closure in the Upper Cretaceous beds, the discovery well, Kerlyn Oil Company's Barnett No. I, sec. 14, T. 17 S., R. 20 W., was originally projected to a total depth of 6300 ft., to test the equivalents of the Morgan sands of the Cotton Valley series, then producing at Schuler. The well was carried to a total depth of 6325 ft. and tested the objective beds without finding commercial production. In the meantime, however, one well had found production in the Jones sand and another in the Smackover lime at Schuler. Kerlyn immediately made arrangements to deepen the Barnett well to the Smackover lime. The top of the Smackover lime was encountered at 7618 ft. and the well was cored and drilled to a depth of 7740 ft.

Jan 1, 1942

By A. A. Smith, J. S. Smart

NUMEROUS investigations of the effects of the various impurities common to commercial coppers have been published, and the data have found wide use in industry. Naturally, emphasis has been placed on the oxygen-bearing coppers of the tough-pitch variety, but need is now evident for data covering the oxygen-free condition as well. Furthermore, relatively few of the important reactions between oxygen and the various impurities are well understood, and often the data at hand are not applicable to the low concentrations encountered in commercial coppers. This paper presents the changes in conductivity and softening temperature derived from individual additions of the group VIII triad, iron, cobalt and nickel, to high-purity copper, and constitutes a portion of the copper-research program being conducted at the Central Research Laboratory of the American Smelting and Refining Co. The method of preparation of high-purity copper and its alloys in either the oxygen-free or oxygen-bearing form has been described previously.1 The purity of this material, and the methods developed to produce it, provide the means for direct investigation of the very low concentration range in which the various impurities generally exist in commercial coppers. The usual necessity for extrapolation to this range using the results obtained from higher concentrations, and the interfering effects of extraneous impurities, are thus simultaneously circumvented. Since previously published data have adequately presented the effects of higher concentrations of iron, cobalt and nickel, the present investigation has been confined to the composition range 0 to 0.05 per cent. All alloys were initially prepared in the form of oxygen-free continuous cast rod, the weighed alloying additions in suitable form being charged with the pure copper to the continuous casting crucible. The best of the available high-purity alloying materials were used, and spectrographic analyses confirmed the absence of interfering elements from the alloys formed. Each series was compounded in the direction of increasing concentration, starting with pure copper in a new crucible and finishing with the 0.05 per cent alloy. Composition was closely controlled by adding the alloying element in the form of a carefully compounded and analyzed master alloy rendered uniform by continuous casting. The accuracy of this method of synthesis was proved by chemical analysis of the more concentrated alloys, and, accordingly, there is every reason to credit the stated composition of the very dilute alloys in the range where chemical analysis becomes highly uncertain. Oxygen-free samples for measurements of conductivity and softening temperature were obtained by drawing the continuous cast rod to wire of 0.081-in. diameter, employing a number of intermediate anneals to refine the grain structure. The

Jan 1, 1942

MINING METHODS. JAY A. CARPENTER, Chairman P. B. BUCKY, Vice-Chairman CLYDE E. WEED, Vice-Chairman ROY A. HARDY, Secretary Alluvial Mining CLINTON BERNARD O. B. PERRY NORMAN CLEAVELAND C. M. ROMANOWITZ R. B. EARL! NO J. B. STAPLER BENERE H. GRANT CHARLES THURMAN Open-Cut Mining Iron A. D. CHISHOLM P. G. HARRISON G. E. DIEHL EARL E. RUNNER G. E. LEVEQOE

Jan 1, 1942

Colorado today is the largest coal producing state west of the Mississippi River. Developments around Denver began about 1860, and the building of railroads created a good market for the new industry. The development of the smelter and steel industries near Pueblo increased the demand. The available records are not complete, and all the data found are shown in Table 76. [ ]

Jan 1, 1942

ALL the ores of any kind whatsoever, even though they be semiminerals and may be perfect in their qualities, have to be recognized by experienced and good sorters. These men must have a detailed as well as a general experience of the metals so that in this first preparation, which is most important, they may know how to distinguish the good from the bad, and to know what is rock and what is ore. They must use patience in this, breaking and cutting and king the ore from the earth. They must separate the good ore from the bad, avoiding as far as possible every occasion for poisoning it by traces of other ores, evil stones, or other things inimical to its nature. Finally, with the judgment of the eye and with tools, and, in the end, by roasting it with fire and then quenching it with water, or by washing and re-washing it, the ore must be made as pure as possible in order to join it better with the companions that seem to be the most beneficial for its needs. Ores would be useless stones without smelting. Therefore, when it is certain that such ores are of divers elemental mixtures, aid must be given to each one according to the evil ingredients [47v] that harm it. But because such evil qualities are things that are often not apparent to the eye, such as too great a burning, or too much earthiness so that when they are alone the fire burns these ores before it melts them, it is necessary to temper them with other materials. To do this it is necessary to have the ability

Jan 1, 1942

By S. C. Oliphant, George H. Fancher

Two samples of drilling mud from the Hastings oil field, Texas, were tested, and the solids in each were separated into small fractions of a limited range in particle size. The mineral composition of each fraction by X-ray analysis is reported, and the results are interpreted in relation to other measured quantities, such as the physical properties of the original samples and the density of the various fractions. It was found that only 7 to 8 per cent by weight of the solids was of colloidal dimensions and that neither of the samples contained montmorillonite but did contain illite. Considerable calcite was also found. These data should be useful to the geologist interested in the origin and history of sedimentary strata as well as to the petroleum engineer.

Jan 1, 1942

By M. A. Grossman

THE hardenability of most steels can be predicted within 10 to 15 per cent provided the complete chemical composition is known, including "incidental" elements; and provided the as quenched grain size is known; and provided, finally, that the composition and heating temperatures for hardening are such as to result in austenite free from carbide particles. In method proposed herein, the steel is considered as having a base hardenability due to its carbon content alone (the hardenability of a "pure steel" of the given carbon content, without any other elements), and this base hardenability is multiplied by a multiplying factor for each chemical element present. After multiplying all these together, the final product is the hardenability. Grain size may be taken into account either in the base hardenability or after the multiplication. Hardenability is stated in terms of "ideal critical diameter"; namely, the diameter of bar, in inches, that will just harden all the way through (absence of unhardened core) in an "ideal" quench, and the calculation may also be related to the Jominy test. The data bring out certain features rather clearly. For example: I. It is quite useless to attempt to predict hardenability unless all elements, including "incidentals," are known; thus an "incidental" chromium content of o.-2o per cent increases the hardenability by about 50 per cent. 2. The relative effectiveness of different alloys is sometimes unexpected; thus molybdenum when calculated in this way appears to be of the same order of effectiveness as manganese, rather than much more powerful as would appear to be common experience; observe that an increase from no manganese to 0.20 per cent Mn provides a multiplying factor of 1.67, and an increase from no molybdenum to 0.2o per cent Mo provides a factor of 1.63, an increase of over 6o per cent in each case. However, if to a steel containing 0.50 per cent Mn there is added "20 points of manganese," the factor is raised from 2.65 (for 0.50 per cent Mn) to 3.35 (for 0.70 per cent Mn), or an increase of only 26 per cent. Thus the first small addition of an element has a much more powerful percentage effect than an equal further addition when some is already present, and in most cases the effect of molybdenum is considered in relation to a steel in which molybdenum is absent. 3. If two elements are equally effective, a greater harden ability will be obtained by using, for example, o.5 per cent of each than by using 1.0 per cent of either of them alone. 4. A knowledge of the as-quenched grain size is essential for precise work, since a difference of only one grain size number (say No. 7 instead of No. 6) makes a difference of almost 10 per cent in hardenability (in these units); this, however, does not apply to certain steels of high hardenability. It should be emphasized that in chromium steels (over 0.30 per cent Cr) and chrome-molybdenum and chrome-vanadium steels, undissolved carbides are likely to be present in the steel as quenched, and that in such cases the charts can indicate only a maximum possible hardenability, whereas the extent of hardening actually obtained may be much less. Thus tests on a number of chrome-molybdenum steels have indicated a degree of hardening amounting to only 50 to 65 per cent of the maximum possible, and in chromium steels from full hardening (100 per cent) down to as low as 70 per cent. On the other hand, when the amount of such elements is small (Cr under 0.30 per cent, Mo up to 0.25 per cent in the absence of Cr, and V up to 0.04 per cent), the charts provide reasonable approximations. The precise figures on the charts are suggested as tentative, subject to some modification as more data accumulate, but the fundamental concept appears to be supported by tests made on a wide variety of steels, a few of the correlations being shown in Fig. I.

Jan 1, 1942

I HAVE now traversed for you in the small and fragile bark of my writing all the shores of the deep and spacious sea embracing the uses of material fires, drawn on by my own desire to enrich you with more learning and with the procedures of these things, as much as to satisfy your demands. Having through the grace of God arrived at the appointed end of my voyage and neither knowing nor perceiving a way of going farther, I had decided to furl the [167] sails and cast die heavy anchors into the water in order to enjoy in tranquillity respite from my sailing, when I was warned by my pilot that before I could disembark I should turn my glance backward and reexamine my work in detail to see if there were any part that had by chance remained undescribed in the obscurity of silence. When I did this there immediately appeared in my mind's eye the many sublimates and smoky tinctures that had been made by the burning and most powerful fire of love. I need not say that I knew of it in far-off countries or from the knowledge of others, but I knew it in my own breast and as my very own and can therefore surely esteem it as hotter than all the other fires that the world calls by that name. Although today its sparks and living flames are spent because of my cold and hoary season, nevertheless it is true that the memory of acts of love of long ago still remains with some smoke and warmth. Therefore, since in this work of mine I wish to describe for you the effects and powers of fires, I should logically have spoken of this before any of the others, because of its actual nearness and the great acquaintance I had with it. But since I have had the glance of my intentions directed at distant things, I have behaved as one does who does not see where he places his feet because he is looking at the sky, or as one who thinks about the affairs of others and forgets his own. But now I do not wish to pass over this thing and I wish to correct my error, particularly in order to provide a happier ending to my written work than by remaining among the horrible uproar of guns, powder, and saltpeter, which would be a harsher ending than speaking of love. Never-

Jan 1, 1942

By Cyril Stanley Smith, Earl W. Palmer

StKip of any of the metals used for deep drawing operations occasionally yields cups that are defective because of a rim that varies in height around the cup in a wave-like manner. Some such defects are traceable to tools or other press factors, but when the protuberances formed (usually four in number on brass and other copper alloys) are symmetrically disposed with respect to the rolling direction of the strip, they are invariably attributable to the metal. The effect is known as "earing" and the protuberances are called "ears." Other terms frequently heard are "tips," "scallops," and "corners." It is recognized that the effect is most commonly a result of a directional crystal structure produced by rolling and annealing operations in the manufacture of the metal strip. Numerous papers dealing with various aspects of the earing effect have appeared in the literature, those listed in the references1 being especially interesting and valuable. An investigation of the factors influencing earing of brass cups has been in progress in the laboratories of the American Brass Co. for several years, and it was thought desirable to make some of the results generally available in summarized form. The present paper discusses many factors that do and do not contribute to ear formation. In addition, a section is devoted to methods of minimizing the earing tendency of brass sheet by proper selection of the cold-rolling and annealing schedule by which it is produced. In the space available, it is impossible to quote detailed experimental procedures and numerical results. However, the authors make no statement that they do not believe to be properly substantiated, either by experimental evidence obtained under laboratory conditions or by experience in the actual production of deep-drawing brass in the brass mill. Mechanism of Ear Formation It must be clearly understood that the formation on cups of symmetrical ears, four or more in number, is attributable solely to the strip metal, and results from the strip having different deformation characteristics in different directions. The tools used in the drawing process, or the type and completeness of lubrication of the strip, have nothing to do with the problem of ears, although they do, of course, greatly affect the "drawing quality" of the strip and the general appearance of the cup. A single tip may be drawn up on the rim of a cup because of misalignment of the tools, or because the gauge of metal varies from side to side of the strip. The two-ear form that sometimes appears is also traceable to gauge variations. However, the four-ear and six-ear symmetrical forms that we are concerned with here are caused by factors inherent in the structure of the metal itself.

Jan 1, 1942

By John Wulff, J. H. Hollomon

The opinion has been widely held that the corrosion of alpha brass occurs by the selective solution of zinc. As late as 1939, Fink1 and Evans2 suggested that in the initial stage of the corrosion the selective solution of zinc produces copper-rich areas, which subsequently act as cathodes that facilitate the deposition of copper. Previously Abrams3 had shown that most of the copper found on corroded brass was re-deposited and not residual, although he did not consider the nature of the initiation of the corrosion process. Enough data exist to indicate that any metal surface is sufficiently heterogeneous to provide the anodes and cathodes necessary for the initiation of corrosion.4,5 Thus, for alpha brass we need postulate not an initial selective solution of zinc, but only the existence of local differences in electrochemical potential. The heterogeneity responsible for potential differences may arise from oxide and other films as well as from alloy concentration gradients. Even though selective corrosion may be possible in some alloy systems, previous data on alpha brass as well as the experimental work reported in this paper do not require this supposition. Bengough and May16 in a discussion of Abrams' paper, first suggested the addition of small amounts of arsenic (0.03 per cent) to a1pha brass to prevent the redeposition of copper (dezincification). This suggestion was later substantiated by Nixon.7 In their studies of the inhibiting influence of arsenic, Evans and Fink were led to the selective-solution hypothesis in order to explain the initial corrosion of such alloys. They believed that an arsenic film covered anode areas and prevented the formation of copper-rich spots capable of acting as cathodes for the deposition of copper. They did not consider, however, the mechanism by which the arsenical film was formed. Bengough and May,a in another publication, suggested that the commonly found gray or black arsenical film may act to: (I) carry oxygen to the brass surface, (2) increase the discharge potential of copper on brass, (3) precipitate cuprous chloride from colloidal suspension in chloride solutions. Masing9 assumed that the film found upon arsenical brass was metallic arsenic. His measurements of hydrogen overvoltage of bulk arsenic led him to believe that the inhibition of dezincification occurs because the overvoltage of a brass surface is lowered by the arsenic film. He reasoned that this film would permit the more rapid reduction of hydrogen at the cathode, which would prevent the redeposition of copper. In a recent paper,10 we have pointed out that the film formed during the corrosion of arsenical brass and copper in stagnant solutions is essentially arsenious oxide (As2O3),

Jan 1, 1942

By Edgar G. Hill

MUCH has been written and said recently about the methods used and materials and equipment employed in building the long tubes that criss-cross a great part of the [ ] united States, like the pattern of a spider's web. This paper will discuss the fundamentals of design of these lines from the economic as well as the engineering view-point, pointing out the effect of the volumes transported, and the load factor at which they are operated, on the unit costs of transportation, as well as the effects on costs of the character of the fluids the lines are called upon to handle. Generally speaking, crude-oil pipe lines carry oil from the producing fields to the [ ] refineries. Sometimes part of the journey is by pipe line to a coastal point and tank ships are employed for the rest of the trip. The main lines of directional flow of crude oil through pipe lines in the United States are shown on Fig. I, but this, of course, does not always show individual pipe lines. BASIC FORMULA FOR FLOW OF CRUDE OIL The laws governing the flow of crude oil through pipes are well known. The basic

Jan 1, 1942

By C. A. Pierce

Studies of roof and floor movement are of interest to those actively engaged in mining. This is especially true in the case of an entirely new area where there is no precedent for guidance. The potash deposit being mined is in the southeast corner of New Mexico, about 20 miles east of Carlsbad. The deposit was formed by the land-locked, shallow, Permian Sea that extended through parts of western Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, southeastern Colorado, and eastern New Mexico. The saline deposits vary from 500 to 4000 ft. thick. Neither of the companies operating in this area has delimited its commercial ore bodies. As all production so far has been from Federal and State leases, the Department of the Interior and the State of New Mexico have a direct interest in the development and extraction of these ore horizons. The ore is composed of an intimate mechanical mixture of sylvite (potassium chloride) and halite (sodium chloride). It lies generally in a horizontal bed varying from 5 to 12 ft, in thickness, and has a cover of approximately 1000 ft., consisting of about 500 ft. of salt beds and 500 ft. of sediments. The immediate mine roof for several feet is principally salt with some potash and clayey material. The next 500 ft. above, from the standpoint of structure, may be considered rock salt with a few inter-bedded potash members. The upper 500 ft. is of sedimentary (Permian and Triassic) origin and contains several water-bearing formations with flows varying from 10 to 500 gal. per minute. This water intensifies the interest in convergence problems as the ore and surrounding formations are water soluble. Potash salt (sylvite) and rock salt (halite) are plastic minerals. Plasticity is defined as a "property of solids by virtue of which they hold their shape permanently under the action of small shearing stresses but are readily deformed, worked, or molded under larger stresse."1

Jan 1, 1942

I SHALL proceed in this chapter to tell you about lead. Because this metal is overabundant in wateriness, and also because it has its other substances in poor elemental mixture, it is highly impure. It is called an imperfect, leprous, and little-fixed metal, which it clearly shows itself to be because of the ease of liquefying it and because it is easily converted largely into a dross that is almost earthy and also because of the stain that it leaves when it rubs against anything. Nevertheless, when we consider its effects, we judge it to be a metal that we are greatly indebted to. Even though Nature in creating us has put into our souls such a thirst and desire

Jan 1, 1942

By Ralph W. Bailey, William B. Price

INTRODUCTION ARSENIC, antimony and phosphorus are now used in the brass industry as standard inhibitors in preventing dezincification in [ ] condenser tubes. This subject has been thoroughly covered by Barry,1 who described the testing procedure by total immersion of suitable specimens in a I per cent cupric chloride solution at definite temperatures. Effects of dezincification were then determined by loss in tensile strength and elongation of the test specimens after definite periods of immersion. In the crystallography of the chemical elements as tabulated by William Hume Rothery,2 phosphorus (metallic), arsenic, antimony and bismuth are placed in group V-B and the type of crystal lattice for arsenic, antimony and bismuth is given as rhombohedral. The Metals Handbook3 [ ] lists them as "rhombohedral hexagonal," with the additional notation that for arsenic this is the ordinary form at 20°C.; other modifications known or probable at other temperatures. In view of these statements and of the fact that phosphorus, arsenic and antimony are effective in increasing the resistance to dezincification, it was natural to assume that bismuth would act in the same manner. A series of tests was therefore carried out employing the methods described by Barry. Much to our surprise, bismuth did not inhibit dezincification, but rather seemed to accelerate it. Tensile-test speci-

Jan 1, 1942