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By Y. Oka, H. Majima

When a rock particle is subjected to an external force, internal stresses and deformations are experienced by the particle. Assuming that the breakage of a rock is mainly due to tensile stresses generated by the action of a pair of concentrated loads, F, directed in compression towards the loading points at the shortest distance, as illustrated in Fig. 1, the stress and deformation experienced by a particle of irregular shape can be determined with the aid of the theory of elasticity. According to the photoelastic experiments made by one of the present authors,' the stress states in a rock particle of irregular shape are quite similar to that of an inscribed sphere of diameter x, as indicated in Fig. 1, but accompanied by the faint stresses, in the vicinity of the particle outside of the inscribed sphere. Therefore, the stress components in an irregularly shaped particle can be estimated by referring to stress components in a sphere. Applying polar spherical coordinates to an elastic spherical body, as shown in Fig. 1, the stress components are all expressed as multiples of F /x2 and more or less influenced by the loading angle and Poisson's number m. In general, the energy w, acting on a rock particle is defined as the product of loading compression F

Jan 1, 1970

By Strathmore R. B. Cooke, Paul B. Queneau

The kinetics of the dissolution of scheelite in basic solutions of carbonate and fluoride were investigated. Work was also done with solutions of alkali metal chloride, hydroxide, phosphate, and mixtures of phosphate and fluoride. The study was conducted at 90 psig and at temperatures ranging from 100" to 155"C, and both natural and synthetic scheelite single crystals were used. The interaction of scheelite with carbonate solutions generally followed a parabolic rate law, and resulted in the formation of calcite crystals on the attached surface. The transport of the CO3 through the calcite to the scheelite surface was probably rate -controlling between 115" and 135°C. Positive deviations from Parabolic behavior were observed at 100" and 155?C, presumably due to the calcite grain growth, and to the formation of a noncoherent calcite layer, respectively. The leaching of scheelite with alkaline fluoride solution produced a calcium fluoride reaction-product which covered the surface as a sheet-like layer. Below 110°C the dissolution rate was parabolic; at 115" and 135°C it was linear. In the linear region, the periphery of the calcium fluoride layer lifted from the sample. Only the lower layers, braced by the scheelite substratum, remained unbroken. This bound layer, approximately constant in thickness, limited the rate at which the fluoride could attack the scheelite. The phosphate and phosphate-fluoride leaches dissolved scheelite at a linear rate; solid reaction products were respectively hydroxyapatite and fluorapatite. Sodium hydroxide and chloride were not effective leachants, and did not produce observable solid reaction products. THE feasibility of pressure leaching of scheelite pulps with basic solutions containing either carbonate or fluoride ions, as indicated by the following equations, has been established by previous investigators:1-3 200°C CaWO4s + CO37q - CaCO3s+WO4aq [1] 200°C CaWO4s + 2Faq ^ CaF2s+WO4aq [2] It is to be noted that a commercial process employing reaction [I] is in use at Union Carbide's operation near Bishop, Calif. In the earlier work referred to, it was apparent that the precipitation of the solid reaction-product on the scheelite particles sharply reduced contact of the leachant with the scheelite. We have extended this work by studying the kinetics of dissolution employing single crystals of scheelite of known exposed surface area. In addition, the effectiveness of solutions of phosphate, of phosphate with fluoride, and of chloride and hydroxide as leachants for scheelite have been investigated. EXPERIMENTAL Apparatus. The low-pressure autoclave used in this wo (100 psig maximum) is essentially that of J. Halpern4 as modified by F. A. Forward.5 Constructed entirely of 316 stainless steel, its maximum capacity is 4000 ml. The temperature in the autoclave was regulated to *0.5?C by a Wheelco thermocouple controller. A 4-in. diam, three-bladed impeller, circulated solution upward against the sample, and a strobo-scope permitted holding the stirring rate to *15 rpm. A check valve and a "pop" type safety valve were installed, a sample holder was fixed to an externally adjustable rod, and a water-cooled condenser was placed in series with the sampling valve. The stainless steel sample holder, Fig. 1, held the epoxy-mounted sample (f) five mm above the impeller. Tightening the tapered sleeve (d) positioned the epoxy-resin specimen-mount by forcing it back against the spacer (c). The mount (e) was 1 in. diam. Sample Description and Preparation. Both synthetic and natural scheelite crystals were leached. The former were single crystals of 99.95 pct purity which were leached approximately perpendicular to the "c" axis; they were supplied by the Gallard-Schlesinger Chemical Manufacturing Corp. The natural crystals, supplied by Minerals Unlimited, were transparent, analyzed 99.8 pct CaWO4, and in ultraviolet illumination exhibited the characteristic blue glow of substantially molybdenum-free scheelite. To permit exposure of an essentially constant surface area of scheelite to the leachant, the samples were mounted in Scotchcast Brand Resin No. 250 (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.). The mount-

Jan 1, 1970

By R. Maddin, R. Pond

THERE have been many recent studies of nonequi-librium alloy structures using specimens which have been formed by rapid solidification.' The general methods for achieving nonequilibrium structure utilize high velocity impingement of a liquid metallic droplet(s) and one or more substrates of relatively high heat conductivity. Specimens formed by current popular techniques are small and have various forms of irregular geometry which severely limit their use for many measurements of physical or mechanical properties. As a result of geometric limitations most research has been restricted to X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, and to a small degree, electrical resistivity. Recently several attempts in mechanical property evaluation have been reported.2,3 A technique for casting large quantities of regular, rectilinear, continuous metallic fibers has existed for a number of years.4 We have utilized this technique with some slight modifications to produce nonequi- librium alloy structures. The apparatus is composed of a small open tube furnace, a pneumatic cage which raises and lowers a graphite ejection mold, and a

Jan 1, 1970

By John E. Dowis

Ore distribution being what it is, many of today's mining companies are forced to develop foreign reserves to satisfy the demands of their customers. This necessity complicates the economic picture for a company, because management must look well be- yond grade and tonnage to determine the feasibility of developing a foreign orebody. Above all, the taxes on such a development must be assessed. The difference that taxes can make in mining profits will be illustrated here for three countries-Canada, Mexico and the United States. For purposes of comparison, identical orebodies will be assumed to occur in all three countries. Only the taxes on these properties will vary. Grade, tonnage, gross income, production costs and production rates will all be the same. The discussion will be limited to federal taxes, because state and provincial taxes are usually negligible by comparison. Assumptions relative to the orebody and the nature of the company undertaking the operation are as follows: (1) Copper is the only value to be recovered. (2) Sixty million tons of ore have been delineated. (3) Underground mining is required, and the production rate will be 3 million tpy. (4) The life of the property is 20 yr. (5) Operations in Mexico or Canada will be handled by a subsidiary of a U.S. parent company. (6) The subsidiary will offer stock.

Jan 1, 1970

By D. W. Frommer

Processing nonmagnetic taconites by selective flocculation-desliming and flotation requires large volumes of water. If impounded without treatment the effluents from these processes require excessively large areas for containment. Experiments conducted in the Bureau of Mines 900-lb-per hr pilot plant at the Twin Cities Metallurgy Research Center indicates that approximately 85% of the water needed to process Michigan nonmagnetic taconite could be reclaimed from the process itself. Water was reclaimed by the controlled addition of lime, sodium carbonate, and synthetic flocculant. As a result, turbidities were reduced to ?1000 ppm equivalent SiO2, while a Ca ion content of ?16 ppm was maintained in the finished effluent. Good-quality flotation concentrates were obtained with reclaimed water and, by means of some indirect comparisons, it can be concluded that the reuse of the water permits a savings of almost 2.0 lb per ton of NaOH, and probably as much as 0.25 lb per ton of fatty acid for total savings of 7.8-10.3 cents per ton of feed. These savings are nearly offset by an estimated chemical cost of 9.3[c] per ton for water treatment.

Jan 1, 1970

By R. F. Steigerwald

The effects of heat transfer on the corrosion behavior of type 304 stainless steel in boiling water have been studied. Heat transfer conditions increase the tendencies of the stainless steel toward stress-corrosion mucking when the water is contaminated with Cl-. Surface preparation is the most important variable in determining the severity of the stress-corrosion problem in water with a given Cl- content. Heat treatment, chemical cleaning, and degree of wet film boiling also affect the corrosion of stainless steels used as heat transfer surfaces in boiling water. An up-paratus for corrosion testing under controlled heat transfer conditions is described. THE principal objective of this investigation was to study the corrosion behavior of AISI Type 304 stainless steel in boiling high-purity water under conditions of heat transfer. The principal variables in the study were: a) boiling conditions: limited boil, agitated boil; b) metallurgical structure: annealed or sensitized; c) surface condition: rolled, pickled, or ground. The results of the study should elucidate the role of heat transfer in the corrosion of stainless steel in boiling high-purity water and provide a base line from which to assess the severity of this type of corrosion. Although there has been an investigation of the effect of heat transfer on the corrosion behavior of stainless steels in alkaline waters,' work on the corrosion of stainless steels under heat transfer has been largely confined to various acid solutions.'-4 Furthermore, the study of the corrosion of stainless steels in high-purity water has been generally restricted to auto-clave and instream testing in superheated (e.g., 300°C) water and steam.5'6 Cooling water problems led to this study of the corrosion behavior of type 304 stainless steel in high-purity water at its atmospheric boiling point. In addition to the effects of heat transfer, this study also considered the influences of the type of boiling,7 metallurgical structure, and surface condition on the corrosion behavior of stainless steel in high-purity water. Two boiling conditions were investigated in this study: a) limiting boiling, i.e., when the heat-transfer surface had just reached the boiling point and boiling nucleated randomly over the specimen surface and b) agitated boiling, i.e., when a mild degree of superheat had been achieved on the specimen surface and boiling occurred generally over the specimen surface. Both boiling conditions are broadly classified as wet-film boiling. Originally, this program included the study of a third type of boiling, dry-film conditions. At dry-film boiling the temperature of the heat transfer surface is high enough so that it is covered with a continuous film of steam. Experimental difficulties made it impossible to study this kind of boiling with the available apparatus. Since surface condition affects heat transfer rates, three typical surfaces were chosen for study: a) as-rolled, the 2B finish received from the supplier, b) as-pickled, 30 min in 8 pct HNO3-1 pct HF, and c) as-ground on 120 grit paper. In order to evaluate the effect of improper heat treatment or welding on hot wall corrosion, both annealed and sensitized mi-crostructure were included in this study. EXPERIMENTAL Test Apparatus. The particular problems of interest in this investigation required a knowledge of the thermal gradient through the test specimen. From this gradient, the heat flux to the surface and the surface temperature could be determined. In order to satisfy this need, an apparatus similar to the boiling-disk apparatus of Fisher and whitney2 was designed. The solution is contained in a thermally-insulated, steel pipe lined with TEFLON resin. A stainless steel _______;________________________________________

Jan 1, 1970

By R. C. Earlougher

Jan 1, 1970

By R. W. Armstrong, P. C. Jindal

The hardness dependence on grain size for polycrys-talline cartridge brass and a leaded brass has been measured by Brine11 and Rockwell B testing. In each case, the hardness, H, depends on the average grain diameter, 1, according to: H =Ho + kHl-1/2 where Ho and kH are experimental constants. Diamond pyramid hardness values have also been measured as a function of the indentation size and grain size to give additional information on the nature of the hardness test and the dependence of hardness on micro-structure. The hardness of polycrystalline brass depends on its grain size. Bassett and Davis' demonstrated this as early as 1919 by making Brinell hardness measurements on cartridge brass. Since then, the hardness of this type of material has been measured as a function of grain size by making Rockwell,2'3 Vickers,4 and Brinell5 tests. he hardness dependence on grain size has also been measured for other materials. Angus and summers6 investigated the grain size dependence of the Brinell hardness of polycrystalline copper and a Cu-4.5 pct Sn bronze. In other studies, nickel,? Armco iron,Big an Fe-0.07 pct C alloy,I0 and an 0.39 pct C-12.45 pct Cr stainless steel" have been investigated. In some of the preceding cases, the hardness results have been analyzed to show that the hardness varies with the average grain diameter, 1, according to an l-l\4, l-1/4 or I-2 dependence,11-13 The studies of the influence of grain size on hardness have not been based on any theoretical model. This may be because the hardness of a material is itself a complicated property. However, attempts have been made to correlate, experimentally and theoretically, the hardness of a material with its unidirectional stress-strain behavior.14-l6 On this basis, Hall" proposed that the polycrystal hardness dependence on grain size might follow directly from the Hall-Petch18,19 relation for the grain size dependence of the yield stress. Thus, the hardness-grain size relation was given as: H = Ho + kHl-1/2 [1] where Ho and kH were taken as experimental constants. The relation was applied to the measurements on brass,' copper,6 bronze,= and Armco iron.' More recently, this relation was shown by Armstrong and jindal20 to adequately describe the measurements on cartridge brass made by Bassett and Davis' and Babyak and Rhines.5 In this case, the relationship was taken a step further by independently relating the values of Ho and kH to the values of oyand ky, previously reported by Armstrong, Codd, Douthwaite, and petch21 from measurements of the yield stress dependence on grain size for this type of material. In the present investigation, new Brinell and Rockwell B hardness measurements have been made as a function of grain size for a cartridge brass and a leaded brass. In addition, diamond pyramid hardness values were measured as a function of the indentation size. All these results are applied to a further analysis of the hardness dependence on grain size. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Cartridge brass and a leaded brass were selected for this investigation for two main reasons: it was anticipated 1) that these materials could be cold-worked and recrystallized to a wide range in grain size and 2) that the results to be obtained on these typical industrial materials could be usefully compared with previous investigations. The chemical analyses of the actual materials which were employed are given in Table I. The as-received 1/2- and 3/4-in.-thick plates were given various reductions in thickness by cold rolling. The rolled material was heat-treated at various temperatures between 330" and 850°C for differing time periods from 5 min to 9 hr to achieve a variation in the average grain diameter between 0.0339 and 0.000543 cm.22 During heat treatment, the brass was protected from zinc loss by packing it in chips or foils of the same composition material. Reasonably equi-axed grain structures were obtained in each case. The metallurgical grain sizes of the specimens were determined from measurements of the average linear intercept on a random line. Annealing twin interfaces were not counted along with grain boundaries. The

Jan 1, 1970

By C. S. Barrett

WhEN a collimated beam of protons or other energetic particles is scattered by a single crystal, the emerging particles produce patterns that contain much crystallographic information. Calculations of the trajectories of individual particles can predict with reasonable accuracy the complete pattern (which is related reciprocally to channeling, now studied in detail6) but the task is a lengthy one which has been completed for very few cases. A many-beam dynamic diffraction calculation of the patterns would be even more difficult and in some cases may be invalid. Because of these complexities, simple methods that will predict to a rough approximation the relative intensities of the lines in films of the back-scattering patterns of a given crystal are wanted. I have found a method which, although it is not a valid computation of intensities or of film darkening by either dynamic or kinematic diffraction principles or by trajectory calculations, nevertheless is found to be useful in practice. It has been tested on several crystal types,7 and is here tested on additional ones. The method consists in first calculating the structure factor F(hk1) for the (hkl) plane, of spacing d, by the familiar equation: where the summation extends over the atoms in the unit cell and fj is the atom scattering factor of the jth atom (using tables computed for electron diffraction, preferably those computed without exchange). Then the F values are squared and summed over all the orders, n, for which F2 has an appreciable value, giving a quantity: Finally, I, is expressed as a percentage of Ic for the

Jan 1, 1970

By C. Feng, W. E. Krul

A study was made of the development of texture and the anisotropy in plastic flow of Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy. Based on Pole figure determinations, the shifting of texture induced by rolling at approximately 400°C was found to be due primarily to slip rotation for the major Portion of the material. Grain boundary shear is believed to be an important factor. The anisotropy of the textured alloy was examined in terms of the variations of yield stress under tension and the ratio of bi -axial strain increments µp, in the temperature range 25" to 290°C. The results were related to Hill&apos;s theory on plastic anisotropy. The Schmid factors of (1100)[1120], (1101)[1120/, and (1101)[1120] slip systems were analyzed and found to be compatible with the observed anisotropy. Cross-slip between these planes was proposed as a possible deformation mode. In a number of published articles, considerable interest has been directed to the possible achievement of texture hardening in hcp metals. Following Backofen, Hosford, and Burke,&apos; this phenomenon was related to the yield criteria of the material and was expressed in terms of the biaxial strain ratio, r = d?w/d?l. The higher the value of r, the greater is the expected potential for texture hardening under certain loading conditions. For a given material, r varies with direction. Such variation can be traced to the anisotropy in plastic flow and can be explained within the framework of the various modes of deformation. Hatch2 found that a high r value coincides with a texture whereby the (0001) pole is closely aligned with the surface normal for sheet materials, Based on the analysis of the slip on the {1010}, {1011}, and (0001) planes, Lee and Backofen3 and Avery, Hosford, and Backofen4 concluded that the resistance to thinning is reduced by the operation of the (0001) <1120> slip system; with this reasoning they were able to explain the low r values (i.e., r « 1) observed in magnesium alloy sheets in the rolling direction and in commercially pure titanium in the transverse direction. The general equation, dealing with plastic flow in a polycrystalline aggregate has been used to correlate the plastic anisotropy and texture. In this expression, T and s are shear and normal stresses, and dri and d? are shear and normal strain increments, respectively. Assuming that five slip systems are operative within each grain and applying the principle of maximum work,5,6 one can determine the m value among the available systems. On this basis, Hosford7 and Chin, Nesbitt, and Williams&apos; were able to correlate m with yield stress under plane-strain compression, and Svensson9 was able to predict the variation of yield stress in textured aluminum. These workers made their analyses from materials in which slip operation is known to be associated with plastic flow. Questions remain regarding the derivation of Hill&apos;s theory on plastic anisotropy,10,11 since it was formulated on von Mises&apos; yield criterion.&apos;&apos; Its ability to deal with other forms of deformation has been in doubt.13 Others have discussed the validity of Hill&apos;s quadratic equation relating strain and yield stress.14&apos;15 For hcp titanium, deformation by various modes of slip and twinning operations has been reported.16-20 If all possible modes of deformation operate and contribute substantially to the plastic flow, it is difficult to imagine how the quadratic expression can suitably describe the anisotropic plastic flow of titanium alloys. Backofen and Hosford15 considered that Hill&apos;s is a macroscopic theory and implied that the major mode of deformation by slip mechanism will adequately describe anisotropy of the material. In the present investigation, slip operation will be shown to play the major role in the development of sheet texture induced by rolling of a commercial titanium alloy. Although twinning and other modes of deformation may also operate, their operation is believed to be secondary. The anisotropic properties of the sheet, which can be expressed in terms of directional variation of r, µp = -d?w/d?l and the yield stress will be shown to be governed primarily by slip operation. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES The titanium alloy chosen for the present investigation had a nominal composition of 8 wt pct Al, 1 wt pct Mo, 1 wt pct V, and 0.1 wt pct interstitial impurities. Sheets varying between 0.1 and 0.15 in. thickness were used. The alloy was received in a condition which was prepared by rolling at 900°C and annealing at 700°C. Subsequently, the sheets were subjected to further reduction in thickness by rolling at 400°C. A total reduction in thickness of 65 to 70 pct was obtained by a series of quick passes in a rolling mill with intermediate reheating. Further reduction in thickness was not possible due to cracking developed at the edges of the sheets. X-ray measurements were conducted in a Siemens and a Norelco unit to determine the texture of the sheets. Reflection techniques were used exclusively with CuK, radiation and a nickel filter. The loss of X-ray intensity due to geometric defocusing was calibrated with a technique described previously." The (0001), (1010), and (1071) pole figures were plotted from 0 to 80 deg, and to present the texture elements quantitatively, inverse pole figures were constructed following the technique described by Jetter, McHargue, and Williams.22 Tensile experiments were carried out at 25", 175",

Jan 1, 1970

By L. A. Price

With increased stripping ratios and with dwindling ore content, the mining fraternity is increasingly turning to larger and larger equipment for profitable open pit operations. The availability of higher horsepower prime movers and increased-capacity electric transmissions using either wheel-mounted or axle-mounted traction motors makes a reality of single-axle, rear dump trucks having 150 to 250 ton capacity. The size of electric loading shovels is inherently geared to the size of haulage equipment. To work effectively with this new generation of trucks, the Harnischfeger Corporation has introduced its P&H Model 2800 with a capacity of 20 to 25 cu yd and a working weight of nearly 1,500,000 lb. The Model 2800, depicted in Figure 1 loading a 200 ton truck, has many new electric and mechanical features designed to give excellent production and low cost operation. Chief among the new features is the ELECTROTORQUE control system. Electrotorque is a completely static, solid state electronic system supplying controlled power both to the armatures and to the fields of the d-c shovel drive motors. It eliminates many major electrical rotating machines and their attendant maintenance. The system was developed jointly by ASEA of Sweden and Harnischfeger Corp.

Jan 1, 1970

By William A. Berg

Vegetation on mine wastes was an important topic at the International Symposium on Ecology and Revegetation of Drastically Disturbed Areas held at Pennsylvania State University August 3-16, 1969. This article summarizes the Symposium papers that dealt with the nutritional and physical aspects of plant establishment on mine wastes. Surface Coal Mining Spoils Germany-In toxic spoil banks created by open-cast coal mining, the material was extremely acid and low in nutrients. It sometimes contained toxic quantities of minor elements and also had a water repellency that resulted in little leaching and high erosion. However, applications of calcareous and hygroscopic ash, fertilization and deep mixing (60 cm) have promoted growth on hundreds of acres. Knobe, N., Rhine Inst. Air Pol., Essen.

Jan 1, 1970

By K. P. Mukherjee, K. P. Gupta, J. Bandyopadhyaya

Even though a lot of work has been done in the past to establish phase equilibrium in the Cu-Si system a re cent investigation casts some doubt about the existence and crystal structure of some of the phases that form in the composition range of 15 to 25 at. pct Si in Cu. The present investigation was carried out using high temperature X-ray diffraction technique along with other standard techniques to study the phases in this composition range. The high temperature 6 phase appears to be tetragonal with parameters a,, = 8.815A, c, = 7.903A, and co/ao = 0.896. The reported bcc E phase exists at room temperature and at least up to 780°C and appears to undergo a transformation near 600°C. The phase appears to be cubic but not of the bcc type. The ? phase appears to undergo a transformation, as has been indicated by earlier investigators, and the low temperature form of .? phase is tetragonal with parameters a, = 7.267A, co = 7.8924, and co/ao = 1.086. THE Cu-Si binary system has been investigated by several investigators1" and several intermediate phases,?,e,?&apos; at lower temperatures and ?,ß,0,e, and ? at higher temperatures, were observed between terminal solid solutions of copper and silicon. Even though the existence of the e phase and the transformation in the ? phase were reported in many early works, in a recent study of this system Nowotny and Bittner6 doubted the existence of the e phase and phase at 550°C. Among the high temperature phases, the 6 phase was reported to have a complex cubic structure with parameter a, = 8.805A.7 Nowotny and Bittner, however, suggested that the structure of the 6 phase might be of CsCl type. In order to check these contradictory reports the present study was taken up to investigate the Cu-Si binary system in the composition range of 17 to 25 at. pct Si. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Weighed amounts of copper (99.99 pct) and silicon (99.9 pct) were induction melted in recrystallized alumina crucibles under argon gas atmosphere. The alloys containing 17, 18, 20, 21, 21.2, 22, and 24 at. pct Si were annealed in evacuated and sealed quartz capsules at 700°C for 3 days and subsequently water quenched. Other than this annealing, the 21.2 at. pct Si and 24 at. pct Si alloys were annealed at 550°C for 10 days, the 17 at. pct Si alloy was annealed at 750°C for 3 days, and the 22 and 24 at. pct Si alloys were annealed at 780°C for 2 days. All annealing temperatures were controlled to within *l°C. Alloys after quenching were subjected to metallographic and X-ray diffraction investigation. A solution containing 5 g FeC13 + 10 cc HCl + 120 cc H2O diluted with six times its volume with water was used as etching reagent. A 114.6 mm diam Debye Scherrer camera was used for obtaining diffraction patterns. The 17, 21.2, and 24 at. pct Si alloys were subjected to high temperature diffractometry using a Tempress Research High temperature attachment and a GEXRD VI diffractometer. For the 6 phase (17 at. pct Si alloy) powder specimen from a 750°C annealed alloy was reheated to 750°C in the high temperature attachment for 1½ hr before taking a diffraction trace. A 550°C annealed and slowly cooled phase (24 at. pct Si) alloy was first reheated to 550°C. a diffraction trace was made after annealing it for 2 hr, and subsequently it was heated to 716OC and kept at this temperature for 2 hr before taking a diffraction trace. For the e phase (21.2 at. pct Si alloy) a 550°C annealed and slowly cooled specimen was heated first to 425°C and annealed at this temperature for 2 hr before taking a diffraction trace. Subsequently, the specimen temperature was raised to 495", 540°, 603", 635", 682", 720°, and 748°C and homogenized at each temperature for 1 hr before taking diffraction traces. The powder specimen temperature was controlled to within +2oC at each temperature and argon gas, purified by passing it at slow rate through a fused CaC12 column, hot (800°C) copper and titanium chips and finally through a P2O5 column, was used to prevent oxidation of the powder. For all X-ray work copper-radiations at 25 kv, 15 ma (for Debye Scherrer technique), and 40 kv, 20 ma (for diffractometer tech-nique) were used. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION At 700°C the alloys containing 17 to 21 at. pct Si showed two phases while the 21.2 at. pct Si alloy was found to be single phase. The X-ray diffraction patterns of the two-phase alloys were consistent with the phase (ßP-Mn type structure) and the phase (21.2 at. pct Si) patterns. The diffraction patterns of the 17 at. pct Si alloy quenched from 750" and 700°C were identical. According to the accepted Cu-Si phase dia-gram4,5,10 the 17 at. pct Si alloy at 750°C should be in the (k + 6) two-phase region and very close to the -phase boundary. The identical patterns possibly resulted from the decomposition of the 6 phase on

Jan 1, 1970

By S. J. Aparo

After surveying the beneficiation techniques in the Florida phosphate field, it is apparent that optimum beneficiation of this ore is a difficult task. Due to continually changing grade, size distribution and basic nature of the ore, there appears to be no universal technique nor a single reagent entirely satisfactory for achieving optimum metallurgy under these dynamic conditions. Although no major change in the basic flow sheet has been made in the last 20 years, there have been many refinements of the process in recent years which have helped increase production, improve recovery, lower unit cost of operation and make the beneficiation of lower grade deposits economically feasible. Among the significant changes is the use of larger plants and equipment which has helped to increase production significantly. The use of cyclones has facilitated and reduced the cost of slimes removal in these large plants. There have also been several new approaches to the flotation of coarse phosphate that are mentioned in the text of this paper. Lastly, significant improvements have also taken place in the area of flotation reagents.

Jan 1, 1970

By J. Lindbo, B. Vigeholm

IN transmission electron microscopy, specimen thicknesses quoted are frequently based upon either traditionally familiar values or a few evaluations representing the whole material. Taking aluminum in 100 kv TEM as an example, average and maximum values are widely accepted as being 2000 to 2500 and 6000 to 7OOOÅ, respectively. It is the purpose of this note to revise these figures and to point out the importance of evaluating individual specimens carefully. All evaluations have been based upon slip trace widths and lattice orientations as determined from diffraction patterns. In many cases where two or more slip systems have been operating the geometrical method described by Crocker and Bevis1 has been applied as a check. The foils were usually oriented to within 2 deg from the exact Bragg angle. Kikuchi patterns were used as indications of correct orientations but not applied in the evaluations. The tilt of the foil surface relative to the beam normal may with certain geometrical relations between the tilt axis and the operating slip plane lead to substantial errors.2&apos;3 Where these geometries were inevitable the samples were omitted in the investigations. Various measures were taken in order to overcome ambiguities, e.g., comparison with neighboring grains, tilts, evaluations based upon two or three slip systems,&apos; and comparison with extinction contour evaluations where s = 0 conditions were obtained. Errors caused by misinterpretation of the slip traces on a micrograph are easily avoided by considering the bright-dark sequence on opposite surfaces and by taking into account the tapering of the foil usually leading to a distinguishable divergence of the pair of traces. In the investigations described here the interpretation was further facilitated as the slip trace formation was observed on the microscope screen and sketches taken down. In a few observations slipping was so violent that the distinction of pairs was considered dubious and consequently given up. To assess average values, thickness evaluations carried out in two independent investigations were analyzed: I) 99.998 pct A1 extruded, cold-drawn, and recrys-tallized to grain sizes between 35 and 500 um were deformed in tension at room temperature. In order to determine the dislocation densities as a function of strain,4 specimens prepared by spark machining and electropolishing in a PTFE holder were analyzed in the electron microscope at 100 kv. Thicknesses were evaluated for 569 selected areas. Histogram I in Fig. 1 shows the results, the average thickness being 4900Å. II) Electropolished specimens prepared from 99.9999 pct A1 with magnesium contents from 0.005 to 0.5 pct rolled to foil and annealed were subjected to fission fragment irradiationa2 For volumetric dose and defect concentration determinations thickness evaluations were performed on 123 areas. Histogram II in Fig. 1 shows the thicknesses of these areas averaging 4250Å. Whereas in investigation I no selection related to thickness has been made, some thin as well as thick areas have been omitted from I1 for experimental reasons. This and the application of two different microscopes although of the same type may account for the difference in average thickness. Assuming a mean error of 10 pct for a single evaluation, the error of the average should be negligible. In order to investigate the maximum transmissible foil thickness in aluminum, specimens were prepared from single crystals with (111) and (110) orientations parallel to the beam, and from polycrystalline material. Maximum values of thickness that could be measured were given by the stopping of the dislocations. The visibility often extended far beyond the end of the slip trace, but with no means of knowing the

Jan 1, 1970

By D. M. Milne, R. F. Stoner, W. Bakiewicz

The Lower Indus Basin deposits form a substantial unconfined alluvial aquifer of excellent quality. This aquifer contains basically highly saline groundwater, overlain in places by considerable amounts of fresh water whose origin can be traced to the present and historical courses of the River Indus. In the past, the main source of groundwater recharge has been direct river seepage and water tables were generally deep. Since the establishment of a perennial irrigation regime however, deep percolation from the increased irrigation supplies has predominated and the water table has risen to within a few feet of the surface. The river system itself is being progressively devel-oped for irrigation and very shortly a situation will arise where the entire low winter flow will be utilized. Fresh groundwater will then be exploited to supplement the surface supplies, and at the same time a drainage system, mainly based on wells will be used to stabilize the water table at safe depths. This paper discusses some of the methods used to ensure optimum economic development of the fresh groundwater and describes the general design philosophy evolved by the authors&apos; firms for both irrigation and drainage wells, with respect to both well configuration and operation. Water quality standards are discussed insofar as they affect subsequent use of the groundwater. A few particular aspects are considered, including the values of the relevant aquifer constants, the construction of wells, and the determination of screen losses. A major problem solved during the Lower Indus Project investigations has been the design of wells to produce fresh water from layers overlying saline water. This solution is also discussed. The recent interest in the groundwater of the Lower Indus Plains of West Pakistan has two main aspects. Firstly, soil waterlogging and the associated salinity hazards caused by rising water tables are a serious problem in agriculture, and the ease with which drainage requirements can be met by aquifer pumping makes this an obvious solution. The second interest stems from the rapid intensification of irrigation agriculture and the growing shortage of water supplies. In the areas where the groundwater is of suitable quality it can be used immediately for irrigation at relatively small cost and with large financial returns. In addition, the aquifer forms a potential storage reservoir which could be recharged from high river flows and depleted by pumping at times of scarcity. SOURCE OF GROUNDWATER The Lower Indus plain is a relatively long and narrow alluvial basin on a north-south axis, some 23,000 sq miles in area, bounded by higher land to the east and west. One hypothesis to explain the distribution and quality of groundwater in the region1 presupposes a river system considerably larger than, but very similar to the present river. This is characterized by a single mainstream, with subsidiary overspill channels in times of flood, running along the crest of a self-deposited ridge and with an extensive advancing delta. Sea water is contained in the alluvial pores of the advancing delta, forming the native groundwater. This has been partially displaced from two sources, namely direct seepage of fresh water from the river channel in meander flood plain areas and percolation from flood spillage in cover flood plain areas. Percolation has been subject to much re-evaporation and is thus slightly saline even as it reaches the groundwater. The whole complex has been further affected by two main influences: evapotranspiration from the land surface that tends to salinize the groundwater and down-valley flow that tends to bring fresher water

Jan 1, 1970

By M. H. Yoo

Possible interactions of the perfect dislocations of six slip systems or the c dislocation with the (10i2f (ioii), {ioIi}(ioiZ), {1122}(1123), and {1121}(ii26) type twins in hcp metals have been analyzed from the crystallographic and the energetic points of view. Twenty-six distinct types of possible interactions were identified, and those selected based on crystallographic constraints were examined for their energetic feasibilities by use of the anisotropic energy factors. No long-range elastic interaction exists for a dislocation when its Burgers vector is parallel to the twin interface. Under a suitable applied stress, a screw dislocation can cross slip at the twin interface. For basal mixed dislocations in cadmium and zinc, the interaction with {1012} twins is found to be attractive, indicating that incorporation of these dislocations into the twins is energetically feasible and that twin growth will result. On the other hand, the interaction between both basal and Prism mixed dislocations and the {1012} and (1121) twins is found to be repulsive in Mg, Co, Re, Zr, Ti, Hf, and Be. This indicates that under an applied stress a local stress concentration will develop due to a dislocation pileup at the interface, which may result in a site for either the nucleation of other twins or the formation of a crack, depending on the cleavage strength. WHEN a metal undergoes plastic deformation, a certain configuration of slip dislocations will result in a state of dislocation pileup against an obstacle. The stress concentration thus developed may enhance the process of twin nucleation and also twin growth. Furthermore, once formed and dispersed in the crystal, twins can act as effective barriers against slip dislocations. The degree of such mutual influence or interrelation between slip and twinning is generally known to be pronounced in the case of hcp, metals. It is also known that deformation by twinning occurs more commonly in hexagonal metals than in cubic metals. In fact, under suitable stress states, all hexagonal metals exhibit {1012) <1011> type twinning.&apos; In addition to this common type, deformation by (1151) <1126> type twinning occurs in zirconium, titanium, and rhenium, which show remarkable ductility.&apos; The importance of twinning during general deformation to the ductility of hcp polycrystals has been briefly discussed in recent review works.2&apos;3 The purpose of this paper is to analyze the interaction between slip dislocations and twins in the hcp structure and to discuss the nucleation and growth processes of twinning and the role of twinning in the <"°" noil) o, 1/3[112O] (OOO2) 1/3[1123] Fig. l—-Slip systems in hcp structure. ductility of hexagonal metals. The problem will be discussed from the geometric and the energetic points of view in a manner similar to that of the previous work on zinc.4 Since hcp crystals deform by several slip and twin systems, numerous interactions result as possibilities. The Burgers vectors of six slip systems and the c dislocation shown in Fig. 1 and the four twin systems listed in Table I are considered here. A complete tabulation of the possible interactions is followed by discussion of those that are more likely to occur on the basis of crystallographic constraints and energetic considerations. 1) CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OF TWINNING The crystallographic elements, K1, K2, n1, and n2, for the four compound twin systems are now well established.= A unit cell with the base vectors n1, and n2 is shown in Fig. 2 for each twin system. The unit cell before twinning is shown in solid line, and the corresponding unit cell after twinning is shown in dashed line. Also shown in Fig. 2 are the following crystallographic parameters: S is the plane of shear, d the interspacing of the twin habit planes K1,Ø Iis the acute angle between n1, and n 2, e is a numerical factor, and q is the number of K, lattice planes intersected by 17&apos;. These parameters can be expressed in terms of the axial ratio, y = c/a, as listed in Table 11. The macroscopic shear strain of twinning, s, and the magnitude of a "unit twin dis-l~cation,"4 bt, are also expressed in terms of y and given in Table 11. In Table 11, K1 and q1 are given in both Miller-Bravais and Miller indices. In double lattice structures, shuffling of atoms in addition to a homogeneous shear of the lattice is generally required if the original crystal structure is to be restored after twinning. The extent of current understanding on this problem of atom shuffling is per- Table I. Four Twin Systems in Hcp Structure

Jan 1, 1970

By Richard F. Down

The Tynagh mine of Irish Base Metals Ltd., a subsidiary of Northgate Exploration Ltd., of Toronto, Canada, is situated one mile from the village of Tynagh in County Galway, one of the western counties of the Republic of Ireland. Mining has been carried on in Ireland since the Bronze Ages, but, apart from a reference in the 1859 Geological Survey records to much earlier mining attempts, mining has not been a feature of the Tynagh area in recent times. The present ore body was discovered by geochemical techniques in 1961. Following a diamond drilling programme to delimit the orebody, a pilot plant was operated at the property in late 1963 and early 1964. Construction of the 2000 tons per day treatment plant began later in 1964 and production commenced in December, 1965. The orebody contains both sulphide and &apos;oxide&apos; ores and these are treated to produce, by flotation, a variety of lead concentrates, a zinc concentrate, and a bulk lead-zinc concentrate, which are shipped to several European smelters. The term "oxide ores" is used here to mean all ores which contain economically important amounts of the oxidised minerals of lead, zinc or copper. THE ORE The ore body lies on the northern side of a major east west fault between sandstone and limestone; it is a boat shaped mass of residual or secondary ore lying over primary sulphide in limestone. (1) (2) The secondary ore consists of both residual sulphides and

Jan 1, 1970

By T. Suganuma

Mitsubishi-Cominco Smelting Co. is a joint venture of Mitsubishi Metal Mining Co. Ltd. (M.M.M.) of Japan and Cominco Ltd. of Canada. The smelter, which is located alongside M.M.M.&apos;s Naoshima copper smelter, was completed in May, 1966 and has a capacity of 36 000 metric tons per year of refined lead. The concentrate feed for the smelter from Pine Point Mines Ltd. is high grade with low impurities; particularly silver, bismuth, antimony, and arsenic, which facilitated a simple plant layout and operation. Concentrate, fluxes, recycle granulated slag and return sinter are drawn from bins by automatic control over weigh belt feeders, sintering is carried out on a 20 m2 Lurgi updraught sintering machine, furnacing in a 3.0 m x 1 ½ m water jacketed blast furnace equipped with an Asarco continuous tapper, refining in four 120 metric ton kettles and casting on a 25 metric ton/hour automatic casting machine. The S@ gas from sintering is cleaned in a high temperature baghouse utilizing glass bags and is then delivered to the M.M.M. copper smelter acid plants. The furnace gases after cleaning in a low temperature baghouse are vented to atmosphere.

Jan 1, 1970

By Erwin Pink

It has been pointed out in a previous publication&apos; that, for a given strain rate, serrated yielding can be observed only at certain test temperatures. Fig. 1 shows the results obtained for polycrystalline and re-crystallized tantalum, Va group in the periodic table of elements, where serrations in the course of deformation match the decrease of total elongation. However, there was no evidence of repeated yielding when testing molybdenum or tungsten, VIa group, at similar conditions, i.e., annealed and air-cooled samples (serrations have been found in quenched tungsten2). The reason for the observed serrations in the stress-strain curve are dissolved impurities on interstitial sites of the lattice. Of importance is the concentration of oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, which are in random solution. Two methods to calculate the limiting concentrations for serrated yielding have been evaluated and applied with more or less success in estimating the role of carbon and nitrogen in mild steel.3 J. Friedel4 has given two equations, which determine the upper and lower strain rates i for the appearance of serrations at a certain test temperature: W denotes the binding energy of the interstitial atom, -1 ev for refractory metals;5 e&apos; the portion of continuous strain in the discontinuous stress-strain curve, measured as -3x10-3; b the Burgers vector, c the concentration, see Table 11, in atom fractions; p the dislocation density, -2 X l09 per cm2 at an average stress ?, -15 kp per mm2 at medium strain. k stands for the Boltzmann constant, T for the absolute temperature, and D for the diffusion coefficient. Table I. Eq. [1], for a given strain rate, determines the minimum temperature, and [2] the maximum temperature, below or above which no "dynamic strain-aging" can occur. According to the calculation, which uses the given quantities, serrations should only be observed within the cross-hatched temperature regions in Fig. 1, and this is in good agreement with the experiment. The effect of varying impurity concentrations is indicated schematically in Fig. 2: only Eq. [I] is affected. Setting Eq. [I] equal to [2], one can calculate the limiting concentration cmin which first causes serrations. The second method uses the aging condition by Cottrell and Bilby6,7 \£i/ \ n. a / where n(t) is the number of impurity atoms, which segregate at a dislocation line of 1 cm length after the time t (t in our case is the time between "repeated yield drops" in the serrated curve, or, the time until the above mentioned strain E&apos; is obtained, i.e., -1 sec for medium intensity or serrations). no is the number of impurity atoms in 1 cm3 and A = Qb4ep[(1 + v)/(l - v)], derived from equations given in Ref. 7. p is the shear modulus, 18,800 kp per mm2 for tantalum, 12,200 for molybdenum, AE the tetragonal distortion caused by interstitial impurities in a bcc lattice (approximately 0.4 for both tantalum and molybdenum) and v Poisson&apos;s ratio (0.35 for tantalum, 0.30 for molybdenum). From Eq. [3], combined with the condition for a pronounced yield drop as formulated by cottrel16 (at least one impurity atom segregated at the unit length of a dislocation), again a no min, and hence the concentration Cmin can be calculated.

Jan 1, 1970