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By F. B. Waanders

Coal, as energy resource, possesses numerous characteristics and properties which all have an influence on its gasification behaviour. The two properties considered as critically important when evaluating a coal source for gasification is its mineral content and slagging behaviour. Research has indicated that slagging formation can be inhibited or even prevented by the addition of a fluxing agent. It is thus of great importance to understand the mineral interaction during gasification in order to select a suitable fluxing agent for the prevention of slagging and clinker formation in the gasifier. The aim of the present project is to evaluate the effect of iron as a fluxing agent and study the transformation of the mineral and added iron during gasification. A pre-determined amount of pure elemental iron (between 2wt% and 20wt%) was added to a base case coal sample in order to study the effect of the addition of iron to the coal. The transformation of the iron in conjunction with the possible iron containing minerals present in the coal was studied by means of Mössbauer analyses. Typical characterisation techniques included proximate analyses, ultimate analyses and ash composition analyses. The ash fusion temperature analyses (AFT) were used to study and predict the slagging behaviour of the iron-spiked coal samples. Even though AFT analyses only provide an average flow property, it gives a good indication of the changes that the iron addition induces on coal properties. FactSage modelling was carried out in conjunction with the Mössbauer and AFT analyses. From the proximate, ultimate and ash composition analyses it was clear that the coal used con-formed to the average characteristics measured over an extended time period. From the AFT values it was seen that an increase in the flow temperature occurred with the addition of pure elemental iron to the coal, which can be of importance for operational purposes as to raise the gasifier temperature and not to have slagging problems to occur in the gasifier. The Mössbauer data show that he-matite is the main Fe-component that forms from the pyrite originally present and from the added iron to the coal, consistent with FactSage modelling, which shows that the partial oxygen pressure determines which mineral species will form. This study opens up new possibilities when considering operational problems experienced in in-dustrial gasifiers. Successful completion of this study and a study to look at reducing conditions in the gasifier will also add to the knowledge that already exists regarding fluxing agents.

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Dunnett, N. J. Turner, J. Koyanagi, M. Ji

The analysis of rare earth element (REE) samples is a necessary part of the metallurgical process for rare-earth bearing ores, providing invaluable information during testing procedures. This requires a fast, multi-element technique, capable of analyzing a variety of matrices for all rare earth elements. X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry and Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis are typically used for high concentrations of REE, but they have limitations for some process work applications due to an inability to measure all elements, longer analysis times, significant interferences and elevated detection levels. The work reported here uses new approaches with Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in order to achieve high precision and accuracy within acceptable timeframes. A combination of aerosol dilution and Kinetic Energy Discrimination (KED) produce a process solution assay method that is robust enough to deal with changing sample matrices and concentrations, whilst maintaining low reporting limits and precisions of less than 5% Relative Standard Deviation (RSD). For high concentration metallurgical and geological samples, a sodium peroxide fusion digestion procedure was used, followed by ICP-MS analysis using extended dynamic range (EDR) and KED. Using these technologies, it has been demonstrated that the necessary support can be given to metallurgical process work for REE extraction.

Jan 1, 2014

By Weiguo Xie, Malcolm Powell, Lian Liu, Ping Yu

"In order to develop a common mathematical and simulation platform for tumbling mills, a review of existing mechanistic models was made identifying the key aspects of grinding and slurry transport which are common to all tumbling mills. A mill model structure has been developed for all types of tumbling mills based on the population balance framework by incorporating breakage characteristics, slurry and solids transport, product classification and discharge, and energy consumption. A size-dependant breakage model developed by the JKMRC is applied. Transport is separated from breakage events and treated as a main sub-model in the new model structure. The model structure is based on dynamic time-stepping technique to enable dynamic simulation capability for non-steady-state simulation and control modelling. It is envisaged that the new model will cover a full range of milling conditions. It should enable a smooth transition between different mill types, such as from AG (Autogenous Grinding) to SAG to ball mill. The dynamic mill model structure developed here is the first step towards mechanistic modelling of grinding mills and provides great potential for the optimization of the comminution process."

Jan 1, 2014

By Verya Nasria, William Bent, William Hogan

"The South Hartford Conveyance and Storage Tunnel (SHCST) project is a significant component of the Hartford Metropolitan District’s (MDC) long-term control plan (LTCP), which is overseen by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection (CTDEEP). This project will address a portion of the MDC’s Clean Water Project (CWP), which will reduce combined sewer overflows (CSOs), eliminate sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs), and reduce nitrogen released into the Connecticut River. The purpose of the SHCST project is to eliminate West Hartford and Newington SSOs, eliminate Franklin area CSOs discharging to Wethersfield Cove and minimize CSO discharges to the South Branch Park River. The locations of each overflow are shown in Fig. 1. In 2010, the district prepared a preliminary design report (PDR) for the SHCST project, which included relief of the Folly Brook trunk sewer and proposed to keep the tunnel boring machine (TBM) retrieval shaft within the city limits of Hartford. Figure 1 shows the 2010 PDR recommended tunnel route. Subsequent to the PDR, the objectives of the SHCST have slightly shifted. In accordance with ongoing revisions to the LTCP, relief of the Folly Brook Trunk Sewer is no longer necessary. Additionally, the MDC has decided to perform less sewer separation in the Franklin Avenue drainage area. To replace the sewer separation, new relief points are proposed within the Franklin area and will be diverted to the SHCST. Figure 1 also shows the current recommended tunnel route (Alignment F). During 2012, the MDC conducted an evaluation of the potential of connecting the proposed North Tunnel (originally proposed as an independent tunnel with its own pump station) into the South Hartford Conveyance and Storage Tunnel. This evaluation concluded that the two proposed tunnels could reasonably be connected together and operated as a single tunnel system utilizing the tunnel pump station at the eastern terminus of the South Hartford Tunnel (Fig. 2). It also was concluded that this alternative was less costly than two independent tunnel systems."

Jan 1, 2014

By Peter Metcalfe

"Wireless communication in the mineral processing environment is not as simple as it is in the home or office environment. The correct design of a wireless network in the mineral processing environment can offer a more flexible and lower cost installation than the transitional fiber networks. However with the flexibility of a wireless solution, also comes some limitations. By reviewing the plant requirements along with weighting the wireless benefits and limitations it is possible to design a network that combines the robustness of a wired solution with the mobility of a wireless solution. This paper addresses some wireless design considerations and it looks at some real life examples in the following areas: •,Meshed wireless network for high levels of redundancy •,Wireless instruments (such as HART, Modbus and others) •,Portable devices for mobile operators •,Network monitoring for plant personnel (it’s no longer just for IT people) INTRODUCTION Typical networks used in the mineral processing environment consist of a fiber network infrastructure with industrial switches used to connect the network devices. These fiber networks can be redundant or put into a ring topologies to offer a higher level of availability. Fiber networks have the benefits of: •,Immunity to noise from power and grounding issues •,Ability to span long distances (2km for multimode fiber and 20km for single mode fiber) •,Maintainable “off-the-shelf” technology Fiber networks however have some drawbacks, such as: •,Relativity high initial installation cost for cable trays, poles, trenches and pulling and termination of cable. •,Fixed geographic topology, adding future fiber drops may be challenging and expensive. •,Mobile users are not considered. Integrating a wireless network with a fiber network can offer the best of two worlds, a reliable high speed backbone for mission critical activities and a wireless network for remote applications and mobile users."

Jan 1, 2014

By M. M. C Jiménez, D. C. Buzzi, D. C. R. Espinosa, J. A. S Ténorio, G. F. R Oliveira

In this work the extractive and selective capacities of solvent extraction synergistic systems to recover nickel and cobalt were evaluated. The liquor used was from the high pressure acid leaching process (HPAL). Initially the industrial liquor, processed from lateritic ores, was analyzed to identify the concentrations of the metals. Experiments of synergistic solvent extraction were performed later. The extraction liquid-liquid was carried out with a mixture of Cyanex 272 (CY) and Ionquest 290 (IQ) extractants. The process was executed with the temperature of 65 ºC, pH of 5.2 and the ratio aqueousorganic 2:1. Systems of 80% kerosene and CY 20%, CY 16% - IQ 4%, CY 12% - IQ 8%, CY 8% - IQ 16%, CY 4% - IQ 16%, IQ 20% were studied during 20 minutes. The results of this paper showed that the mixture of these two extractants doesn’t improve significantly the recovery of nickel and cobalt from liquor.

Jan 1, 2014

By M. Nonaka

An attempt to produce fuel from biomass waste by hydrothermal treatment has been made with expectation to effectively utilize a renewable source of energy and an unexploited energy resource. In this paper, we have used empty fruit bunch (EFB) that is a residue after recovery of crude palm oil from palm oil trees in a plantation in a tropic country. A hydrothermal treatment was conducted using a 500 mL autoclave, with alkali (K2CO3) catalyst. EFB was decomposed more by alkali catalyst of lower alkali content and rather polymerized in higher catalytic region. The functional group composition of the solid phase oil is similar independent of alkali content, however its burning characteristic became more incombustible with increasing alkali content.

Jan 1, 2014

By H. B. Zhou

The process of bioleaching marmatite using moderately thermophilic bacteria has been studied in this research by comparing marmatite leaching performance of mesophilic bacteria and moderately thermophilic bacteria and valuating the effect of venting capacity on marmatite leaching performance of moderately thermophilic bacteria and the effect of pulp densities on marmatite leaching performance of moderately thermophilic bacteria. The results show that moderately thermophilic bacteria have more advantages over mesophilic bacteria in bioleaching marmatite. Aeration agitation can improve the transfer of O2 and CO2 in solution and promote the growth of bacteria and therefore, enhance the leaching efficiency. With the increase of pulp density, the total leaching amount of valuable metals increased, however, the extraction efficiency decreased due to many rea-sons, like increasing shear force that results in poorly growth condition for bacteria, etc.

Jan 1, 2014

By L. Li, K. Jiang

China is the world largest producer and consumer of zinc. Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (BGRIMM) is one of major research and engineering institutes for nonferrous metallurgy in China. This paper (presentation) introduces the development of China’s zinc smelting industry, key production processes and main producers. The process research and development are reviewed as well as BGRIMM’s R&D activities in the last decade. China's refined zinc production was 4,829kt in 2012, accounting for 38.6% of world production. Primary production was 4,722kt. There are around 150 refined zinc producers in China. The traditional fluid bed roasting - leaching jarosite is still a dominant process for primary production and its production accounts for about 60% of country's total production. However, the direct leaching process is gaining market share. Seven direct leaching plants with 330kt/a capacity, including autoclave leaching and the Outotec direct leaching, have been put into production by June 2013. Five autoclave leaching projects with 590kt/a capacity are in the pipe line and are expected to be commissioned in 2014 and 2015. To cut the production cost and improve smelter economics, process research to optimize the production flow sheet, to improve the iron removal and to enhance the recovery of co-existed rare metals were carried out. The development trends of China’s zinc smelting industry from the view of cutting production cost, improving energy efficiency, increasing comprehensive utilization are discussed accordingly.

Jan 1, 2014

By G. A. Craig

The Moon, asteroids, and planets of the solar system represent the most distant caches of wealth that humanity has ever considered recovering. Yet, in addition to the potentially recoverable values represented there, harvesting off-Earth resources has a second, almost incalculable sustainable benefit in that they can be retrieved with absolutely no damage to Earth. Previous research mostly assessed the potential of asteroids and the Moon for mining purposes from a theoretical and scientific point of view. These studies investigated drawbacks that could be experienced in this type of operation, but no detailed economic evaluation that is meaningful for mining project management has been conducted and the parameters that are most likely to make an operation feasible are unknown. This paper provides a preliminary economic and sensitivity analysis of a possible off-Earth mining business extracting minerals from an existing asteroid.

Jan 1, 2014

Sishen Iron Ore Mine previously used only A-grade material (>60% Fe in situ value) from the pit for beneficiating in the DMS plant to a final product grade of 66% Fe in lump and 65% Fe fine ore. The B-grade (between 50% and 60% Fe) and C-grade material (between 35% and 50% Fe) were stockpiled separately, owing to the inability of the existing DMS plant to beneficiate material at densities higher than 3600 kg/m3. The ability to beneficiate the B-grade material at densities higher than 3600 kg/m3 was evaluated, and air-pulsed jigs were found to be techno-economically feasible and value maximizing. The beneficiation of B-grade material would add to the existing DMS production of 28 Mt/a, with no additional mining cost and only limited costs for the handling of waste and B-material. The objective of the Sishen Expansion Project (SEP), i.e. the jig plant, was to produce 10 Mt/a of saleable product with six modules to the set physical and chemical specifications by 2009. During the start of construction, it was decided to add another two jig modules to the plant to increase production to 13 Mt/a. During commissioning and ramp-up the shortcomings and advantages of the jigs were fully experienced and understood, resulting in many changes to optimize jigging performance..

Jan 1, 2014

By J. -P. Chilès

The discrete Gaussian model is a very popular change-of-support model for estimating block grade distributions. It is designed for a stationary random function Z(x) that is regarded as the transform of a stationary random function Y(x) with Gaussian marginal. It is based on an assumption that is not fully true and thus constitutes an approximation to the exact solution. We examine the effect of this approximation on the modelling of the marginal distribution of block values of a lognormal random function. The initial discrete Gaussian model and a variant of that model are considered.

Jan 1, 2014

By G. C. S. Burns

"A system has been developed to simulate the mining of the Mufulira orebody. The main output from the system is a picture-gram from which the start date and effective life of all proposed mining faces can be measured. This information provides schedule dates for the completion of major capital development projects and stope preparation activities.The orebody must be divided horizontally into main levels and vertically into blocks of equal interval. Ore reserves are defined by specifying the tonnage contained in each block and main level. Mining faces are defined by their co-ordinates, and may themselves be split into sublevels. The simulation maintains an echelon between contiguous sublevels. Other face parameters control the speed of mining, the availability and relative priority of the face.The required production from each crusher/shaft system is specified. The technique of simulating the mining process in order to achieve the required production is described."

Jan 1, 2014

"Chairman: Professor E. P. PFLEIDER Rapporteur: Mr P. R. JANISCHPapers:Optimum design of an open pit by D. A. PhillipsAn open pit design system for stratiform ore bodies by L. A. J. Pronk van Hoogeveen, J. R. Cutland and M. WeirAn open pit design model by R. H. Robinson and N. B. PrennThe Chairman in opening the session highlighted the current situation in the United States of America where some 85 to 90 per cent of all mining (except for coal) is done by open pit methods, and where some 40 per cent of the coal is mined by open pit. The South African industry is, of course, dominated by the deeper level underground gold mines; however, with the aid of an extensive open-pit technology developed in other countries, South African companies arc continuing to explore possibilities of open-pit exploitation of base mineral, coal and diamond deposits. Several successful ventures are already in operation at Phalabora, Optimum Colliery, Kimberley and elsewhere, and South Africa is undoubtedly benefitting in this regard by drawing on the experience of others.The papers of this session were therefore particularly pertinent, particularly when viewed in conjunction with those presented at an earlier South African conference devoted specifically to open pit mining.Two themes dominated the discussion which followed presentation of the three papers at this session. The first related to the practicability of using the reported techniques as a tool for management, and their acceptability as such to mine management. This was, of course, not peculiar to this particular session, but rather the major point of debate over the entire conference.The second theme concerned the reliability of the initial drill hole data on which any open-pit design must necessarily be based. This gave added emphasis to the problem of practicability, for no management is likely to accept an elaborate pit design unless confidence can be placed in the ore reserve assessment.In noting these two features of the discussion, it should be remembered that all the three papers dealt largely with design and pre-planning; there was an unfortunate lack of papers or discussion on the subject of controlling the day-to-day mining of open pits, and this is an area where the potential impact which can be made by the computer is even greater.In introducing his paper, Mr D. A. Phillips pointed out that it was concerned only with optimization, and that it therefore assumed, firstly, an adequate subdivision of the orebody into ore blocks characterized by grade, rock type, structure, etc., and, secondly, an acceptable forecast of costs and mineral prices in order to generate a suitable profit matrix. However, programs dealing with these problems for both massive, disseminated and stratiform ore bodies are available to Roan Consolidated Mines. The method of optimization which he had described had been used on a region split into 28 000 blocks, for which the program used three hours of C.P.U. time on an IBM 360/40 computer. The computer design had provided a three per cent improve¬ment on a normal design of the same area."

Jan 1, 2014

By P. Braga, A. Chaves, S. França, A. Luz

"In Brazil, there are no official reserves of molybdenum, and the unofficial reserves are modest. Therefore, the molybdenum ore (molybdenite) produced as a co-product or by-product of emerald mining in the region of Campo Formoso, BA, has arisen as the only economic option. The flotation process is commonly used in Brazil for the recovery of molybdenite from emerald mining tailings, but it produces low-content molybdenite concentrates, thereby resulting in a product with low economic value. The molybdenite concentrate produced in Campo Formoso contains 83.5% MoS2 (50% Mo), which is less than the international standard product that contains > 90% MoS2 (54% Mo).This low value is due to the presence of talc, which is a naturally hydrophobic mineral that is also floated with the molybdenite during the flotation process. Separability studies were done in a Partridge-Smith cell using dextrin and quebracho as a molybdenite depressor in solution at different concentrations and pH values to produce a technical-grade concentrate (i.e., 90% MoS2). These basic studies were accompanied by measurements of the zeta potential and contact angle, which was determined by the capillary rise method. The results of these floatability studies were used in bench flotation tests, which were performed in a Denver laboratory flotation cell. A molybdenite concentrate of 93.4% MoS2 was obtained when dextrin was used at a concentration of 100 g/t."

Jan 1, 2014

By S. Botes, H. van der Merwe

While the refractory lining contains the process on a steady-state basis, the tap-hole must provide a channel for transport of molten materials at discreet intervals, with thermal cycling as routine. The tap-hole introduces a discontinuity in any lining, and this fact can lead to failure in the region around the tap-hole before general lining failure occurs. Hence there is a need for a rapid and reliable tap-hole repair technique that can be readily implemented in conjunction with all types of linings. The UCAR®V Repair supplied by GrafTech is a durable solution capable of repairing all types of lining designs and has been extensively utilized in the ferroalloy industry. More than 20 UCAR®V Repairs have been successfully performed in South Africa alone. This paper describes the system in general and reviews recent repairs and their unique challenges.

Jan 1, 2014

By S. M. Graham, G. Mellis

"The determination of the oxidation state(s) of an element present in a solid sample may be required for a number of reasons, including the assessment of the degree of reduction which has taken place during a multi-step production of a metal. In addition, possible flaws in a metal may result from small amounts of oxides included in the solid. The analyte of interest may be present as a major component of a sample of interest, or as a minor impurity - beneficial or requiring removal - in another matrix.Numerous methods have been established for the analysis of species in solution samples - for example, Fe2+ and Fe3+ by titration, Cr6+ by colourimetric means, etc. With appropriate knowledge of the solution being analysed, many of these methods are fairly straightforward, extremely reproducible and accurate. In those instances where the analyte in a solution is known to be in only one form, the analysis is even more straightforward, since it can be achieved instrumentally (by AAS, rCP-OES or rCP-MS, for example).However, the situation with respect to the analysis of solids is not as simple. Various techniques - such as X-ray diffraction - are routinely used by our mineralogists to obtain information about the various minerals present in solid samples, and thus about the oxidation states of the analyte elements present. However, these techniques usually give results that are qualitative, or semi-quantitative at best. They are also usually time-consuming and expensive. One of our colleagues at Mintek, Deshenthree Chetty, has done extensive work in developing a method for the quantification of manganese species in solids using mineralogical methods, and this is no small achievement."

Jan 1, 2014

By J. Finch, F. Rosenblum, McGill University

The self-heating of sulphides can be a major hazard in mining operations and concentrate handling, particularly during transportation and associated storage. Self-heating results from the oxidation of sulphide minerals and can vary from being insignificant to potentially hazardous to life and infrastructure. It is essential that there be a reliable test methodology that can categorize a given sulphide material as to its self-heating potential. By their nature, sulphide ores and concentrates are complex and variable mineral combinations making it difficult to predict their self-heating behavior a-priori based on mineralogy or with a simple "snapshot" test. Furthermore, self-heating behavior will depend on the state of oxidation of the sulphides as well as time, temperature and humidity. A review of available testing apparatuses and protocols that can be used to assess self-heating potential is presented. Each of these methodologies was examined in relation to its ability to predict the latent self-heating hazard of a sulphide material. Several of the methods were compared to illustrate their strengths and weakness. The results indicated that a number of the test protocols may produce false negative indications of self-heating potential, constituting an obvious concern to the industry.

Jan 1, 2014

By W. Z. Yin

With increasing of mining depth, many iron ores in Liaoning Province contain carbonates such as siderite and ankerite. The emergence of these carbonates in ores creates a fatal impact on the running producing process of anionic reverse flotation in Dong Anshan Sintering Plant, which leads to ?concentrate and tailing no separated?. And its reason is still unknown. Moreover, siderite, despite that its ferric theoretic grade is only 48.2%, however, do not affect the blast furnace utilization factor, therefore, can be used as raw materials in ironmaking. In order to solve the separate problem of iron ore containing carbonates, five pure minerals, martite, magnetite, quartz, siderite and ankerite, were selected for a series single flotation experiment. The aim was to discover the flotation difference of these minerals, furthermore, to explore a new flow sheet for the iron ore containing carbonates. The results of single mineral flotation experiment reveal that the combination regulators, starch and CaCl2, in different pH extent, can make these minerals taking on obvious flotation difference, which make it possible to process the iron ore containing carbonates. A new flow sheet, step-flotation, to process iron ore containing carbonates is explored, that is, first step, direct-flotation processing, is to eliminate the bad effect that the carbonates bring in flotation system by collecting carbonates under neutral condition; the second step, reverse?flotation processing, is to get qualified iron concentrate by collecting quartz under alkaline condition. Manual mixed ore sample were processed successfully through this new flowsheet under proper reagent system, which has absolute advantage compared with routine flowsheet. Actual ore sample of compound magnetic separation concentrate were processed successfully both open and closed circuit experiment through this new flowsheet. SEM and EDS were used to probe the reason why carbonates affect the regular processing. It is analyzed that moderate floatability of siderite and its coating on the surface of hematite and quartz make the phenomenon ?concentrate and tailing no separated?. This research provides a reasonable processing scheme for iron ores containing carbonates and can be used for reference in processing other complicated, refractory iron ore.

Jan 1, 2014

By J. A. Theron

"This paper provides guidelines on performing mass and energy balance modelling involving coal and coal derivatives. Usually, the inputs to a pyrometallurgical process would be specified in terms of elements and compounds. Reliable thermochemical data is more widely available for species involving uniquely defined, relatively smaller molecules. However, in the case of coal, the molecules are extremely large and not uniquely defined. Consequently, modelling processes involving coal and its derivatives have several potential pitfalls. These are outlined in the present paper. The main findings are as follows:•,Coal proximate analysis should not be regarded as absolute; it could vary with several parameters, including heating rate •,For modelling, the use of ultimate analyses should be considered a preferable option to proximate analyses, where, ‘fixed carbon’ and ‘volatiles’ are not defined in terms of chemical composition •,Significant errors could be made if the larger molecules are neglected during calculation of the calorific value (CV) of coal gas (the gas liberated when coal is heated in the absence of oxygen) •,For elemental analyses, the oxygen content (which is calculated by balance) should be checked to ensure it is within the expected range •,For representation of sulphur in coal, double-counting due to SO3 in the ash analysis should be avoided •,Potentially, oxygen in coal could be represented as O2, H2O, CO, or CO2; however, use of some of these species without considering the experimentally determined gross CV results in significant errors in the energy balance. If coal enthalpy is calculated from elemental analyses without correction, representation of coal oxygen as H2O(l) gives reasonable accuracy (up to 6.9% error for a set of South African coals). Coal volatiles could be represented by a complex mixture of compounds, even using different oxygen-containing species than the abovementioned four, provided the enthalpy is corrected •,It is recommended that an ‘enthalpy correction value’ is incorporated in energy balances involving combustion, devolatilization, or conversion of coal and coal derivatives, e.g. coke, char, or tar. That would imply that proximate analysis, elemental analysis, as well as the gross CV would be required for all solid or liquid coal-derived substances being modelled. No other correction due to the form of carbon being different than graphite should be used, as that would imply doublecounting some effects."

Jan 1, 2014