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By H. H. Campbell

The following pages discuss some problems connected with the manufacture of steel by the open-hearth process. The methods employed necessarily enter into the domain of what is called theory; but the results are eminently practical. The determination of the various losses of thermal power and the investigation into the chemical reactions in the bath, are important to every manufacturer. It will be understood that definite figures concerning one furnace and one system, will not apply to all other furnaces and systems; but it is hoped that methods are developed, which are capable of general application and which will shorten the labors of others. The gas-calculations contain nothing entirely novel; but certain methods appeared to be very convenient and they are here elaborated in order that others may have a model to follow. The determination of the loss of iron by weighing the slag and finding the percentage of iron therein, is probably unusual. If so, the fact is to be regretted, since this is the only way that an accurate result can be obtained. The common method of estimating the loss in open-hearth work, is to subtract the weight of metallic products from that of the materials charged. Nothing could be more unsatisfactory, inaccurate and meaningless. Pig-iron, steel, wrought-iron and ore are charged into the furnace; complicated chemical reactions occur; the sand of the pig-iron, the slag from the wrought-iron, the gangue of the ore, all rise to the top ; the silicon, manganese and carbon burn and leave the metal; some of the iron oxidizes and goes into the slag; some of the ore is reduced and gives up metallic iron ; the recarbonizer is added, the mission of which is to waste itself; in the pouring of the steel, pit-scrap is made in the ladles, around the moulds and under the spout; the errors in weighing the products join hands to make accuracy impossible; and then the " loss" is determined by diffrence !

Jan 1, 1891

By G. W. Leney

Iron ores occur in such a wide variety of forms that nearly every kind of prospecting, geological knowledge, and geophysical technique has some application in the search for them. The type of orebody that is considered desirable depends on political and economic considerations, on transportation and markets, on the characteristics of the orebody, on the metallurgy of the ore, and on its comparison with other available ores. In North America, materials that can be efficiently processed into high grade concentrates and pellets are now the object of most exploration work. These are usually shallow, relatively unoxidized, metamorphosed iron formations that are particularly suitable for geophysical methods of exploration. Magnetic surveys are used for the direct discovery of new orebodies, for mapping stratigraphy and structure, and at times to locate oxidized zones in magnetic iron formation. Gravity mapping provides supplementary information, indicates gross tonnages, is useful in regional studies, and can discover non-magnetic orebodies. Electrical methods have not been fully exploited but self-potential, resistivity, applied potential, electromagnetic and perhaps induced polarization surveys all have restricted but highly useful applications. The use of all geophysical techniques promises to increase as the number of exposed easily discoverable orebodies decreases. A high consumption of steel, and consequently of iron ore is the chief characteristic of an industrial society and this consumption has been increasing at an average rate of about 35% every ten years for the past century. To supply this demand, iron ores and iron bearing materials in a wide variety of forms have been exploited on every inhabited continent and in nearly every country. Nearly every kind of prospecting, geological knowledge and geophysical technique has some application in the search for them. The type of orebody that is con-

Jan 1, 1964

By Oliver Smalley

EXCEPT for the work of Guillet, who conducted a systematic investigation on the zinc-replacing value of nickel in brass, and extended his investigation with a view to developing commercial high zinc content nickel brasses, the author does not know of any systematic research on the subject. The most promising commercial alloys and their physical properties obtained by Guillet are given below: Maximum Elonga- Reduction Copper Zinc Nickel Stress, tion, of Area, Brinell Tons Per Per Cent. Per Cent. Sq. In. 55.0 41.0 5.0 24.4 46.5 94 Sand cast. 22.6 27.0 90 Chill cast. 56.7 39.74 3.35 30.0 43.0 51.7 97 Casting annealed 2 hr. at 750° C. 33.9 33.0 50.7 144 Cold-drawn bar. 55.15 42.3 2.24 29.8 33.0 116 Casting annealed 2 hr. at 750° C. 32.3 29.0 151 Cold-drawn bar. These test results scarcely justify the use of such quantities of so expensive a metal, and could have been obtained from ordinary commercial brass. For purposes of comparison, the physical properties of ordinary brasses, ranging from 70 per cent. to 50.1 per cent. Cu in both the cast and normalized1 conditions are included in Table 1. These incidentally furnish a useful standard of the properties of castings and of rolled, extruded and forged brass when correctly annealed. A close study of some of the well-known special brasses containing nickel reveals a series of alloys which bewilder by their complexity, and one can only hazard a guess at the function and commercial value of each of the many elements used.

Jan 10, 1925

By J. L. Bruce

After six years of war-enforced idleness, Cyprus copper mines are operating again. This relatively long shutdown seems infinitesimal when compared with something like seventeen hundred years of inactivity that followed the important operations of the ancient Romans, and continued until the twentieth century. The historical records of the ancient operators are scarce but full of interest to those who realize that Cyprus copper production was important more than two thousand years ago. This paper, however, will give only a brief review of the ancient history and the evidence of ancient mining which have been quite fully covered in other publications.1-6 The purpose of this paper is to give a general sketch of the Cyprus Mines Corporation's enterprise in the Island of Cyprus, with special emphasis on those conditions and practices which are unusual. The picture is not intended to be complete, and many interesting details will be omitted. Some of these may be described in subsequent papers covering departmental practices. The principal operations of Cyprus Mines Corp. are in Cyprus, where it has leasehold concessions from the Cyprus Government covering about 50 square miles. It holds additional areas under "Prospecting Permits." The consideration for the concessions is a royalty on production, coupled with minimum annual rentals. Cyprus is a British Colony in the Eastern end of the Mediterranean with an area of about 3000 square miles and a population of about 400,000, of which 65 pct may be classed as Greeks on the basis of language, religious training, and traditions. About 25 pct are Moslems, principally of Turkish extraction. Prevailing languages are Greek and Turkish. A large proportion of the supervisory and administrative staff and practically all of the skilled and unskilled craftsmen and laborers are drawn from the native population. The "overseas" staff constitutes not more than 2 pct of the employees. The majority of these are from the United Kingdom, the British Dominions and Colonies. About one-third are from the United States of America. The topography of the Island is rugged, with mountains and foothills covering more than two-thirds of the area. Between the Kyrenea range rising to 3000-ft elevation, along the north coast, and the Troodos range (maximum elevation 6400 ft) occupying the southwest half of the Island, lies a cultivated rolling plain, the "Mesaoria," dry in summer and watered only by the winter rains and by scanty irrigation from small mountain streams and wells in the spring and summer. Climate and natural vegetation are characteristic of semi-arid conditions. The "urban" population, about one-fourth of the total, lives in the five port towns, Famagusta, Larnaca, Limassol, Paphos and Kyrenia, and in the capitol Nicosia, near the center of the Island. The suburban population lives almost entirely in villages or small towns, with very few people residing in isolated country homes.

Jan 1, 1949

By R. W. Parsons, P. R. Chaney

Oil recovery by the imbibition mechanism can be important in fractured carbonate reservoirs with a bottom water drive. Laboratory experiments were performed on water-wet carbonate rocks to model this process. The results are interpreted in light of the applicable scaling laws. The imbibition production behavior of a pillar of rock subjected to a slowly rising water table can be synthesized from data on total immersion experiments on small rock samples. If the rate of water table rise is slow enough and if the physical properties are such that the imbibition zone is of a small vertical extent, then only the final oil recovery on the small samples need be known. Applying laboratory imbibition data to a real reservoir should be done with caution because of possible wettability problems and the unknown behavior of two-phase flow in fractures. INTRODUCTION The spontaneous taking up of a preferential wetting fluid into a porous medium with the simultaneous expulsion of the contained fluid is termed imbibition. One of the many physical imbibition processes is the production of oil by the taking up of water into a water-wet reservoir rock. In certain types of heterogeneous reservoirs, e.g., fractured, it is realized that imbibition alone may be the dominant mechanism. Theoretical studies of imbibition oil recovery have followed several lines of attack. The behavior of certain mathematically tractable and conceptually simple models have been analyzed. Birks1 considered a bundle of vertical capillaries model, while Perotti et al.2 and Kelemen3 used a model of a series of vertically oriented fractures. If the oil production behavior from a block of reservoir rock is known, then the cumulative behavior of a vertical stack of these blocks subjected to a rising water table can be determined by a method outlined by Aronofsky et al. 4 Knowing the capillary pressure and relative permeability functions should uniquely set the imbibition behavior for a given sample. Solutions of the partial differential equations describing the process, however, present some formidable problems. Digital computer techniques have been applied to displacement processes in which the capillary pressure has been included.5"8 More recently, similar techniques have been used by Blair 9 to calculate countercurrent imbibition behavior. The fact that imbibition behavior is described by the usual fluid flow equations (Darcy's Law and continuity equation) implies that the derived scaling laws should apply equally to this situation. Use of model experiments to study imbibition has been employed by Graham and Richardson 10 and Mattax and Kyte,11 who actually tested the scaling law applicability. This study is concerned with scaled model imbibition experiments on water-wet carbonate rocks. Of particular interest is the slowly rising water table experiment. This simulates a highly fractured reservoir with the water table rising uniformly through the vertical fracture system. Experiments were performed on different sized samples and with different rates of rise of the water-oil interface surrounding the rock pillar. Total immersion imbibition experiments on smaller rock samples were performed to test the basic linear scaling laws and to see if these simpler tests could be used to synthesize the rising water table experimental results. THEORY IMBIBITION SCALING LAWS Scaling laws for the flow of two incompressible immiscible fluids in a porous medium have been presented by Rapoport.12 These are derived directly from Darcy's Law for the individual phases and the continuity equation. Results from a laboratory model experiment will duplicate those from some reservoir prototype if a constant proportion is maintained among the three forces acting on the fluids — the capillary pressure gradient, the gravitational gradient and the flowing pressure gradient. Operation of the model (i.e., fluid injection or withdrawal) must be conducted in accordance with specific equations. If the

Jan 1, 1967

By F. F. Peng, A. D. Walters, M. R. Geer, J. W. Leonard

INTRODUCTION Washability characteristics derived from float-and-sink analysis in Chapter 4 demonstrate that coal is intrinsically heterogeneous, and this heterogeneity is also evident in the proximate, ultimate, and size analyses. A range of particles from high to low specific gravity is usually seen in the run-of-mine coal. One objective of coal preparation is to recover the high quality float material (the particles of lower specific gravity) such that the recovered product meets certain quality specifications, as well as to reject or recycle low quality particles of higher specific gravity. The maximum recovery of cleaned coal at the required quality is of major concern to plant operators. However, the quantity and quality of products of coal cleaning, determined in the operation of actual commercial cleaning plants and by theoretical calculation based on run-of-mine washability studies, are known to be different with each coal. Therefore, during the last half century, coal preparation engineers have repeatedly sought methods to predict the technical and economical efficiency of separation of cleaning equipment and systems. Many formulas have been proposed by international investigators to evaluate the efficiency of various coal cleaning operations, primarily based on the yield and/or ash of the various products of coal cleaning. Performance criteria in use today are capable of defining all of the important aspects of a given concentrating operation; however each criterion has certain restrictions or limitations. It is important, therefore, to understand how such formulas can be used and the problems involved in their construction. Technical Measure of Plant Performance Conventional means for evaluating a preparation plant's performance are generally approached through the use of equipment performance mea-

Jan 1, 1979

By Donald H. McLaughlin, Reno H. Sales

ADAPTATION to mining needs of the rich store of geologic knowledge concerning mineral deposits and the application of principles of the science to specific problems in the finding, development and stoping of particular ore bodies are the major tasks of the mining geologist. On him to an increasing degree is placed responsibility for estimation of ore and appraisal of mineralized ground, for explicit guidance of exploration and development, and for reliable advice with regard to the many geologic conditions that influence mining operations. In the long continued and steady efforts to meet these requirements, a special skill in close observation, recording, and quantitative interpretation has been developed, particularly by geologists on staffs of mining companies, which in many districts has proved to be effective, not only for technical ends, but also for advancement of scientific understanding. The foundations for mining geologic work were laid in most districts of the West by investigations of the United States Geological Survey. For years they have provided a reliable basis for geologic thought with regard to ore deposits, and later studies have enriched and supplemented rather than superseded them. In very few districts have the geologic relations stated in the earlier papers needed serious modification or revision, in spite of new evidence subsequently made available in abundance by mining exposures. Indeed, one of the chief satisfactions derived from success in mining geologic work is the assurance that it gives of the correctness bf the major concepts of the science of ore formation, established to so large an extent by the leaders of this notable group among whom Lindgren has been so eminent a figure. The geologists of the Survey have given and are continuing to give the service which can properly be expected of the Federal government. Their work, however, though of the greatest value in establishing the broad geological setting,

Jan 1, 1933

By M. J. Pool

The partial molar heats of solution in liquid tin of cadmium, silver, tellurium, and zinc have been measured at 655°. 700°, and 750°K by liquid-metal solution calorimetry. Silver, cadmium, and zinc are endothermic at these temperatures while tellurium is exothermic. Only the heat of solution of silver depends on composition while all four elements show a temperature-de pendent heat of solution. The heat of solution of tellurium is constant up to 0.6 g-at. pct, becomes increasingly more exothermic, and reaches a limiting value at 1 g-at. pct Te. The limiting value has been used to calculate the heat of formation of SnTe at 750°K. The heat effects associated with the dissolution of the compounds Ag2 Te, CdTe, and ZnTe in liquid tin were measured at 750°K. These values are cotnOined with the measured hat effects at 750°Kfor silver, cadmium, tellurium, and zinc to detertrline the heats of formation of the telluride compounds. Cadmium lelluride exhibits a heat of dissolution which has a compositional dependence. THERE is a considerable amount of interest in the compounds of tellurium because of their electronic properties. Both cadmium and zinc tellurides are thermoelectric materials and considerable work has been done on their electronic properties but a limited amount of data is available on their ther-modynamic properties. This work was undertaken to elucidate the heat of formation data on cadmium and zinc telluride. Since both cadmium and zinc are in Group II it seemed to be of interest to compare the values obtained for them with the heat of formation of a Group I telluride. Silver telluride was selected for this comparison. In the course of the work it was also possible to determine the heat of formation of tin telluride and therefore to make a comparison of some of the Group I, 11, and lV tellurides with the metallic elements silver, cadmium, and tin being in the same period. There is also a great deal of interest in the energetic changes which occur upon addition of solute elements to a common solvent. This investigation provided an opportunity to study the partial molar heats of solution of silver, cadmium, tellurium, and zinc in liquid tin. The partial molar heats of solution are of theoretical interest because solute-solute interactions are a minimum in dilute solutions and application of solution models is simpli- fied. In order to complete the analysis of solute-solute and solute-solvent interactions the temperature dependence of the partial molar heats of solution was also measured. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE All materials were of the highest purity available. The silver, zinc, cadmium, and tellurium were obtained from American Smelting and Refining Co. and were reported to be 99.999 pct pure. The silver telluride, zinc telluride, and cadmium telluride were obtained from Atomergic Chemetals Co., a division of Gallard-Schlesinger Chemical Manufacturing Corp., and were electronic-grade material of 99.999 pct purity. Tin used for the solvent bath and for calibration was obtained from the Vulcan Manufacturing Co. and was reported as being 99.99 pct pure. The liquid-tin solution calorimeter used in this work is similar in principle to the differential twin-type calorimeter described by K1eppa.l Two of three identical calorimeter wells are used together during any set of experiments, one well being active and the other being passive. The wells are positioned 120 deg apart in an aluminum calorimeter block. Each well contains a multijunction thermopile and a Pyrex test tube to hold the liquid metal bath. Forty-eight of the thermopile junctions are distributed over the surface of each calorimeter well adjacent to the test tube and serve to integrate the heat effects occurring. The other forty-eight are next to the aluminum calorimeter block. The thermopiles for the three wells are connected differentially so that any change in temperature at the outer junctions (which will be the same for both wells because of the high conductivity of the aluminum block) will oppose for the two wells and result in no shift of the zero. The electrical output represents the true temperature difference between the two reaction vessels. A reaction occurring in the active well gives a comparison with another body of very similar thermal properties. In this way, any spurious heat effects due to slight temperature drifts within the entire calorimeter block are eliminated. The output of the differential thermopile goes to a dc amplifier with multiple ranges of from * 10 pv to 1 30 mv. The output of the amplifier is then fed into a Leeds and Northrup strip-chart recorder. The adiabatic temperature change is then calculated using the technique of Howlett, Leach, Ticknor, and ever.' The aluminum calorimeter block is contained in a cylindrical furnace with main and control heaters

Jan 1, 1965

By Oscar A. Glaeser

THE mine and plant of the United Verde Copper Co., located in Yav-api County, at Jerome, Arizona, have been described in various technical publications and, therefore, a brief outline of its essential features will suffice. The orebodies are of the schist replacement type, the main sulfide mass being a large lens-shaped body approximately 7 acres in cross-sectional area. In general, the mineralization is found along the iron-schist contact, with the orebodies extending about 1000 ft. along this contact and varying from a few feet to 250 ft. in width. The mine is located on a mountain slope and has openings into it on three horizons, as follows: 1. Raises and ore passes open vertically into the shovel pit. These extend down to the 1000-ft. level, where they terminate as loading bins in the Hopewell adit. The main fan intake air shaft, which also extends vertically down to the 1000-ft. level, has its surface opening on the hillside at the extreme north end of the shovel pit, and the main mine air return exhausts through a raise at the extreme south end of the shovel pit. 2. The 500-ft. level adit. 3. The Hopewell adit on the 1000-ft. level. The mine has a vertical downward extent of 2000 ft. below the 1000-ft. level. Underground operations are carried on through two main shafts, both of which are wholly underground. Shaft 5 is the ore-hoisting shaft. It has three compartments and extends from the 800 to the 3150-ft. level. Shaft 6 is the service shaft, and is used for lowering and hoisting men and material. It has a large cage compartment and three smaller compartments for counterweights, ladderway, and pipe and power lines. This shaft extends from the 500 to the 2550-ft. level, and is now being extended to the 3000-ft. level. An air shaft for the downward movement of fresh air from the fan has been provided, and extends to the 2550-ft. level at this time. Work has been started to extend this air shaft to the 3000-ft. level. A return airway for vitiated mine air, in the form of raises and short connecting drifts, extends downward to the 2100-ft. level. The underground mining operations extend from the 300 to the 3000-ft. level. There are about 45 stopes in active operation on the 17 levels

Jan 1, 1929

By Nelson Severinghaus

The Rock Chapel plant of Consolidated Quarries Corporation (Fig. 1) is three miles northeast of Lithonia, DeKalb County, Georgia. It was opened about eight years ago for crushed stone aggregate. This paper reviews a number of experiments that have been tried in drilling and blasting, and gives the practice in use today. It also presents several theories on the action of explosives in this type of blasting. The rock worked is a bare dome of granite gneiss about 3000 ft. in diameter, rising 150 ft. above the surrounding ground (Fig. 2). It is uniform in composition and quality, without seams, and extends downward to unknown depth below the quarry floor. A water well drilled 600 ft. remained in the same rock. The principal difficulty encountered in blasting is an easy split, which tends to break down the rock in large blocks.

Jan 1, 1938

By Nelson Severinghaus

The Rock Chapel plant of Consolidated Quarries Corporation (Fig. 1) is three miles northeast of Lithonia, DeKalb County, Georgia. It was opened about eight years ago for crushed stone aggregate. This paper reviews a number of experiments that have been tried in drilling and blasting, and gives the practice in use today. It also presents several theories on the action of explosives in this type of blasting. The rock worked is a bare dome of granite gneiss about 3000 ft. in diameter, rising 150 ft. above the surrounding ground (Fig. 2). It is uniform in composition and quality, without seams, and extends downward to unknown depth below the quarry floor. A water well drilled 600 ft. remained in the same rock. The principal difficulty encountered in blasting is an easy split, which tends to break down the rock in large blocks.

Jan 1, 1938

By Alexander Squire

A BRIEF study of the effects of material and processing variations upon the tensile properties of steel formed from mixtures of iron and carbon was made in order to provide information regarding the .properties obtainable in iron-carbon compacts as influenced by forming pressure, sintering temperature, and graphite particle size. Sintered steels formed from mixtures of iron and graphite have been studied by Stern,1 who investigated the effect of various percentages of graphite on compacts formed from electrolytic iron that were repressed and heat-treated after sintering. A further study, by Stern and Greenberg,2 is concerned with the heat-treatment of steels formed by the carburization of iron compacts, and Margolies3 has reported work on the simultaneous sintering and carburization of iron-powder parts. Glauch4 investigated the effect of various types of graphite on the properties of iron-carbon powder alloys but did not determine the effect of different particle sizes of the same graphite alloyed with different types of powder. In the investigation reported in this paper, powders typical of those produced by electrolytic deposition and the decarburization of shotted steel scrap were used. The powders were mixed by tumbling in a jar mill with graphite powder ground to an average particle diameter of 2, 4, 6, and 16 microns (as determined by microscopic measurement). The properties of the iron and graphite powders are presented in tabular form as Table I. In order to obtain the maximum information from a minimum number of test specimens, the study was divided into two sections with one set of specimens treated identically in each section as a basis for comparison. In the first section, iron powder produced by the shotting and subsequent decarburization of scrap steel was mixed with 2-micron graphite powder, pressed at 50,000, 100,000, and 200,000 psi, and sintered in hydrogen at 1200°C for the periods of time ranging from 15 to 120 minutes. In the second section of the investigation, electrolytic iron powder was mixed with graphite of an average particle diameter of 2, 4, 6, and i6 microns, pressed at 100,000 psi, and sintered at temperatures ranging from 1000° to 1200°C. for periods of time of 30 to 180 minutes. By following this procedure an indication of the effect of the following variables upon the density and tensile properties of iron-carbon powder compacts was obtained: (I) forming pressure, (2) sintering time, (3) particle size of graphite powder, (4) sintering temperature, (4) type of iron powder.

Jan 1, 1947

By F. C. Hull

The grain size of a metal or alloy is one of the most important factors determining its properties. In steels, for example, grain size affects hardenability, toughness and machinability; in brasses, grain size is related to hardness and deep-drawing quality. In the field of heat-resistant alloys, grain size has a marked effect on ductility, creep and endurance strength. In order to determine these effects, as well as to control the properties of materials, many accurate and rapid measurements of grain size must be made. This paper presents a new and improved method for the estimation of grain size. Usual Methods OF EvaluatiNg Grain Size A frequetly used method of estimating grain size is that of comparing the image of a polished and etched specimen on the ground-glass screen of a metallographic microscope with standard grain-size charts. Several types of standards are available for use with different classes of microstructures. Geometric Grids.—The Metals Handbook' has a series of hexagonal grids ranging in size from ASTM No. I to 8. Idealized Grain Networks.—Idealized grain.boundary networks for ASTM grain sizes I to 8 are included in the American Society for Testing Materials Tentative Standard E 19 - 39 T, standard Micrographs & Metals Handbook and ASTM Tentative Standard E19-3gT contain micrographs of hypo-eutectoid and hypereutectoid steels ranging in grain size from No. I to 8. The grain size of annealed brass (diameter of the average grain in millimeters) is obtained by comparison with 10 micrographs of varying. grain size in ASTM Tentative Standard E 2-39 T. A handicap to accurate evaluation of grain size by this method is the fact that it is difficult to compare photographs in a dimly lighted room with the image on the ground-glass screen, or, if the general illumination is increased so that the printed standards may be clearly seen, the contrast of the image of the unknown is decreased. It is easier to estimate grain size by comparing a micrograph of the unknown with the grain-size standards. However, photographing every specimen on which the grain size is desired is too costly in time and materials to be practicable. For hardened steels, the Shepherd or Jernkontoret fracture grain-size standards are very accurate and useful, but this method obviously cannot be applied to ductile alloys such as brass, stainless steels and austenitic heat-resistant alloys. Jeffries' method for grain-size measurements consists of counting the number

Jan 1, 1948

By F. C. Hull

The grain size of a metal or alloy is one of the most important factors determining its properties. In steels, for example, grain size affects hardenability, toughness and machinability; in brasses, grain size is related to hardness and deep-drawing quality. In the field of heat-resistant alloys, grain size has a marked effect on ductility, creep and endurance strength. In order to determine these effects, as well as to control the properties of materials, many accurate and rapid measurements of grain size must be made. This paper presents a new and improved method for the estimation of grain size. Usual Methods OF EvaluatiNg Grain Size A frequetly used method of estimating grain size is that of comparing the image of a polished and etched specimen on the ground-glass screen of a metallographic microscope with standard grain-size charts. Several types of standards are available for use with different classes of microstructures. Geometric Grids.—The Metals Handbook' has a series of hexagonal grids ranging in size from ASTM No. I to 8. Idealized Grain Networks.—Idealized grain.boundary networks for ASTM grain sizes I to 8 are included in the American Society for Testing Materials Tentative Standard E 19 - 39 T, standard Micrographs & Metals Handbook and ASTM Tentative Standard E19-3gT contain micrographs of hypo-eutectoid and hypereutectoid steels ranging in grain size from No. I to 8. The grain size of annealed brass (diameter of the average grain in millimeters) is obtained by comparison with 10 micrographs of varying. grain size in ASTM Tentative Standard E 2-39 T. A handicap to accurate evaluation of grain size by this method is the fact that it is difficult to compare photographs in a dimly lighted room with the image on the ground-glass screen, or, if the general illumination is increased so that the printed standards may be clearly seen, the contrast of the image of the unknown is decreased. It is easier to estimate grain size by comparing a micrograph of the unknown with the grain-size standards. However, photographing every specimen on which the grain size is desired is too costly in time and materials to be practicable. For hardened steels, the Shepherd or Jernkontoret fracture grain-size standards are very accurate and useful, but this method obviously cannot be applied to ductile alloys such as brass, stainless steels and austenitic heat-resistant alloys. Jeffries' method for grain-size measurements consists of counting the number

Jan 1, 1948

The Sub-committee on Coal Mining, since its appointment, has been collecting data about subsidences in coal mines in this country, and thinks that almost all of the available data about occurrences of this sort in bituminous mines has been collected. Similar data is being compiled for the anthracite regions, which it is hoped will be ready for the 1927 meeting. As most of the bituminous seams are nearly level, the records obtained give the problem in its simplest form, without complications due to the pitch of the seam. Copies of the questionnaire, Appendix A, were mailed to all of the coal operators' associations, to most of the large operating companies and to many engineers, with the request that any data on the subject be returned to the committee, or that advice of any subsidences known be given: the replies to most of the questionnaires were general, although some specific cases were given. Many of the companies were unable to reply to all questions, as they lacked the necessary data, but in nearly every case where accuratc data was available, it was cheerfully furnished, and any additional information requested was secured. All specific cases of subsidence were followed up by correspondence, and in several cases by personal inspection. Figs. 1 to 31 were made from the information furnished. Table 1 gives measurements of elevations taken in one case at intervals from October, 1913, to May, 1918. With one exception, where the evidence cannot be released on account of a lawsuit, it is believed that the cases submitted with this report include practically all that have happened in bituminous coal mining in this country of which actual measurements were secured. Some of these have been published by Young and Stoek,l and some have been secured from other publications. In collecting these data, the subcommittee had the Engineering Societies Library extend its bibliography to date; this list is given in Appendix B. To assist in the study of the problem, all of the subsidence literature in English was examined for cases in which spccific measurements were given, and the essential data for each case are shown in Appendix C.

Jan 1, 1927

By B. Ball, D. W. Fuerstenau, P. C. Kapur

A two-phase distributed-parameter model of the flotation process has been extended to allow consideration of the important process parameter, concentrate grade. A simple expression is presented for the grade of concentrate in terms of the zeroth and first moments of the concentrate distribution. An example is given for a binary ore containing two pure minerals each having nondistributed rate constants. For extend-ing the model to the distributed rate constant case, a cubic polynomial zoas utilized to simulate the feed distribution. One particular example is considered and grade-recovery curves are generated to show the dependence of such curves on the initial feed distribution. Operating flotation plant engineers have traditionally evaluated plant performance in terms of the recovery of valuable mineral and the grade of the concentrate. In both operation and research, grade-recovery relationships have been used as a guide for selecting flotation conditions. Weissl illustrated the use of grade-recovery curves in plant operation and considered the grade-recovery relationship to be a metallurgical one. The extensive experimental work of Chi" using standard batch flotation tests on iron ores shows that, even with extensive statistical correlation of data, little insight can be gained into the basic fundamentals of these relations. Such relations must depend on the kinetic behavior of the various mineral species in the flotation circuit. In his flotation text book, Gaudin3 considered the relationship of recovery and of product grade to flotation kinetic indices, but he did not extend his calculations to yield grade-recovery relations. Although Gaudin used a simplistic model for his analysis, he did recognize that variations in flotation rates must result from variations in locking, surface heterogeneity, particle size and shape, among other things. In a recent paper,' we presented a model of the flotation process that could be readily analyzed with an analog computer. This model combines the concept of a distributed set of rate constants"" with that of the two-phase flotation model,8" resulting in a model more powerful and flexible than previous ones. The purpose of the present paper is to show how this model can be used to generate grade-recovery curves and to determine the dependence of such curves on the various kinetic parameters. In this paper, the model will be limited to the semi-batch case, but extension to the continuous case is a straightforward step.

Jan 1, 1971

By C. P. Fiske

The pottery of the New Jersey Zinc Co. (of Pa.) is equipped to make three classes of refractories; namely, spelter vessels, spelter condensers, and high-grade fire-brick. The most important of these are the spelter vessels, on account of the extreme severity of the service which they must perform, necessitating great care in the selection of materials and in the whole process of manufacture. Next to the spelter vessels in importance come the condensers, as large numbers are used in the manufacture of spelter, and improvements in quality result in material decreases in working cost. While the fire-brick which form the laboratory, or high-temperature portion of the spelter furnaces, are placed at the foot of the list, they are nevertheless of much importance, since high quality will decrease the frequency of the always expensive shutdowns for repairs. To promote simplicity, the manufacture of these three products will be described separately in this paper, except in so far as materials and the crushing and handling system common to all are conccrned. Materials Bond Clay.—The bond clay used entirely at the Palmerton pottery is a St. Louis clay furnished by the Grand View Fire Clay Co. It is stored in a system of covered bins, and no attempt is made to weather it in the accepted sense of the term " weathering." Some years ago our clay was weathered before pugging, but we did not find the benefit sufficient to offset the additional handling and the loss of clay incurred. Furthermore, we believe that the rotting of the pugged mix (described later) accomplishes the same results to better advantage. That there is some action taking place in the clay while stored in the covered bins, however, is evidenced by an increase in volume which at times has caused damage to the retaining walls of the bins. We have at present a stock of bond clay weathering in the open, and when this is put into service an opportunity will be afforded for making comparisons with the clay as usually handled.

Jan 1, 1918

By E. Miller, J. M. Eldridge, K. L. Komarek

The thermodynamic properties of liquid Mg-Ge alloys have been determined between 1000°and 1500°K by an isopiestic method. Germanium specimens, heated in a temperature gradient and contained in covered graphite crucibles of special geometry, were equilibrated with magrtesium vapor in closed titanium tubes. The crucible design allowed free access of magnesium vapor to the samples during the equilibration to form alloys of magnesium and germanium, but prevented magnesium losses from the crucibles on quenching the titaniuin tubes to terminate the experimental runs, thus preserving the equilibrium alloy compositions. The activities and partial molar enthalpies of magnesium and the integral thermodynamic properties of the system were calculated from the experimental data. THE Mg-Ge phase diagram' shows one congruent melting compound, Mg2Ge, of essentially stoichio-metric composition, two eutectics, and very limited terminal solid solubilities. Very little information is available on the thermodynamic properties of the Mg-Ge system. The free energy of formation of Mg,Ge was recently deter-mined2 by a Knudsen cell technique in the temperature range 610° to 760°C. The standard enthalpy of formation of Mg,Ge was measured calorimetrically by Bever and coworkers.3 The present study was undertaken as part of a general investigation of the thermodynamic properties of the homologous series of Mg-Group IVB systems, i.e., Mg-Pb,4 Mg-Sn,5 Mg-Ge, and Mg-Si. An isopiestic technique was used which was developed by the authors5 for investigating the thermodynamic properties of liquid Mg-Sn alloys. Specimens of the nonvolatile component, contained in covered graphite crucibles, are heated in a temperature gradient in an evacuated and sealed titanium reaction tube, and equilibrated with magnesium vapor of known pressure. The method employs crucibles of special geometry which preserve the high-temperature equilibrium composition of liquid alloys having a highly volatile component such as magnesium on termination of the experimental runs by quenching the crucibles to room temperature. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE First reduction germanium of 99.999+ pct purity (Eagle-Pitcher Co., Cincinnati, Ohio) and 99.99+ pct magnesium metal (Dominion Magnesium Ltd., Toronto, Canada) were used. The graphite crucibles were machined from high-density (1.92 g per cu cm) graphite rods (Basic Carbon Corp., Sanborn, N.Y.) which had a maximum ash content of less than 0.04 pct. The non-reactivity of graphite with germanium at the temperatures used in this study had been previously established by Scace and Sleck.6 The experimental procedure has been previously described in detail.5 The selection of a particular crucible geometry for a run was determined by a combination of imposed experimental conditions, the principle being that more tightly covered crucibles were required to preserve alloy compositions during quenching when higher magnesium pressures and higher specimen temperatures were used. Depending upon the composition range of the equilibrated alloys the source of the magnesium vapor was either pure magnesium or a two-phase mixture of Mg2Ge + Ge-rich liquid of known magnesium pressure. The experimental runs can be divided into the following three groups on the basis of crucible geometry and magnesium source material. Crucibles with Small Holes and Pure Magnesium Reservoirs. The crucible dimensions were identical to those of the Mg-Sn investigation5 except that the hole diameters were reduced to 0.010 in. because of the higher temperatures and higher magnesium pressures involved in the Mg-Ge system. During an equilibration run, magnesium vapor diffused from the reservoir to each specimen through the small holes, one drilled through the crucible lid and two others drilled through graphite baffles positioned vertically inside the crucible between the lid hole and the specimen. Since the magnesium pressure was high, i.e., in the range 117 to 277 Torr, during the equilibration time of approximately 24 hr, equilibration was not impeded by these holes. A specimen composition at equilibrium was fixed by the relative temperatures of the specimen and the reservoir, and by the thermodynamic properties of the system. Upon brine quenching the titanium reaction tube to end a run the vapor pressure of magnesium above the liquid alloys decreased exponentially with decreasing temperature, and the small cross-sectional areas of the holes (4.9 x 10"* sq cm) drastically reduced magnesium losses from the crucibles. Because of its low vapor pressure, germanium losses from crucibles during a run were at most 0.2 mg for pure germanium and correspondingly less for the alloys. This crucible geometry satisfactorily retained the equilibrium alloy compositions on quenching for magnesium-rich (from 3 to 33 at. pct Ge) alloys provided their temperatures were below the melting

Jan 1, 1967

By Orrin P. Peterson

The decision of the Supreme Court -of the United States not to review the findings of the lower courts closes an interesting chapter in the mining litigation that has arisen as a result of the extralateral feature of the mining law. The time seems opportune to record some of the important geological features, and also some of the legal features, of the controversy, in the hope that these will be permanently accessible to members of the mining profession. After many rumors of litigation, the Utah Consolidated Mining Co. sued its neighbor for the ore that had been, it was alleged, wrongfully extracted from its so-called Yampa limestone lode. This ore lay beneath Utah-Apex surface and was claimed by virtue of the extralatera1 rights conferred on the Utah Consolidated Co. through the ownership of certain specific mining claims, one of the principal claims being the Yampa. Previous to bringing suit, the Utah Consolidated Co. had strengthened its position by purchasing the Old Yampa mine and by making an agreement with the Utah Metal & Tunnel Co., which gave it clearer title to the outcrop of the Highland Boy limestone. Access to the workings of the Utah-Apex Co. was secured and reciprocal privileges gave Utah-Apex representatives the right to enter the properties of the Utah Consolidated Co. This resulted in the Utah-Apex immediately bringing countersuit for ore alleged to have been wrongfully extracted from under its surface in the Leadville country, see Fig. 4. Six cases came up for consideration: five related to the original suit and the countersuit, and one related to the Dana extralateral claims of the Utah-Apex Co. Well-known attorneys, geologists, and mining engineers were engaged by both sides, and thousands of feet of development work were done to prove or disprove ideas that would sustain the contentions of the opposing sides. Models of wood, wire, and glass were constructed to present clearly to the court the actual physical relations. These models were also of great value to the attorneys and witnesses in clarifying hazy impres-

Jan 1, 1924

By D. B Kibler

The Florida hard-rock field extends from Suwanee and Columbia Counties in northwest Florida to south of Croom, Florida, in Hernando County. This area is approximately 100 miles long and varies from 2 to 30 miles in width. Florida hard-rock phosphate was discovered at Hale Springs, about one mile northwest of the town of Dunnellon, Marion County, in the year 1888, by Alber-tus Voight, who lived within a few hundred yards of the spring. Soon after this discovery there was a great influx of land speculators and wildcat operators into the vicinity of Dunnellon. A few years later phosphate was found in Alachua, Levy, Citrus and Hernando Counties, and a great number of small crude plants were built from Newberry, Alachua County, all the way to Croom, Hernando County. Phosphate was found in many places as "outcrops." Looking for outcrops was the first method used by the early prospectors in searching for deposits. Several years passed before any systematic method of prospecting was used. Early Mining The early method of mining hard-rock phosphate was with picks and shovels, wheelbarrows, mules and wagons. The pick-and-shovel method was used altogether until about 1900, when some of the larger operators began to use railroad-type steam shovels of from ½ to I-yd. capacity Picks and shovels, with negro labor loading the phosphate ore (called "matrix") into wooden side-dump skip-cars, was continued until about 1907. From the discovery of hard-rock phosphate until approximately 1905, overburden was removed with mules and scrapers. At some places, the overburden was loaded into side-dump skip-cars by negro laborers and the cars were then pulled up an incline with a steam hoisting engine. The maximum depth of overburden that could be economically removed by hand labor, mules and scrapers was approximately 15 feet. About 1905 one of the companies erected a producer-gas power- I house near Dunnellon and generated its own electricity and about the same time the larger companies began using hydraulic methods for the removal of overburden. From the year 1888 through the year 1939 approximately 75 companies were operating at one time or another in the hard-rock territory, on approximately 500 locations. The hard-rock deposits are more irregular and have higher mining costs than the pebble-rock deposits, therefore 1 they have not been competitive in the domestic market, but because of the higher grade of the hard rock it is in demand for I the export trade. Discovery of phosphate outside of the United States has made it increasingly difficult in recent years for the hard-rock companies to survive, so today i only three companies are operating. These

Jan 1, 1942