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By Philip W. Henry

There is a difference of opinion among engineers on the subject of depreciation in general, and still more on its application to any given case The committee which was appointed by the American Society of Civil Engineers to make a report on Valuation of Public Utilities, states "There is no subject connected with valuation about which there are more diverse views than those relating to depreciation;" and in the discussion which took place upon the presentation of the preliminary report of this committee in January, 1914, that part of the report dealing with depreciation called forth more discussion than any other. From this discussion it was evident that the word "depreciation" was not always used in the same sense, so it is quite important that some definition be adopted. As this paper relates to the proper method of treating depreciation by corporations or individuals operating oil properties, both of which must make a return of annual net income to the government in connection with the income tax, it will be in order to adopt the definition of the Internal Revenue Bureau. Under date of Mar. 29, 1910, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue of the Treasury Department stated "Deduction on account of depreciation of property must be based on lifetime of property, its cost, value and use." Again, on Form 1035, "Return of Annual Net Income" for miscellaneous corporations (Section 2, Act of Congress approved Oct. 3, 1913), a deduction from gross income is allowed for "Total amount of depreciation for the year." This item is defined more particularly as follows: "The amount claimed under Item No. 5 (b) for depreciation should be such an amount as measures the loss which the corporation actually sustains during the year in the value of buildings, machinery, and such other property as is subject to depreciation on account of wear and tear, exhaustion, or obsolescence. The amount taken credit for on this account in order to be allowable should be so entered on the books as to constitute a liability against the assets of the corporation. The amount claimed under this item should not cover losses in the value of stocks and bonds. Decrease in the book value of securities owned, so far as such decrease represents a decline in the actual value of such securities, should be deducted under item 5 (a) of the return. "Where depreciation of physical property is made good by renewals, replacements,

Jan 1, 1915

By Betty L. Gibbs

A company must have an organized approach to effectively sort through the profusion of available software and hardware and find the programs and equipment which fit defined needs. The selection process must build a complete compatible system which includes hardware and software. The methodology presented in this paper helps identify some of the more important considerations. The steps needed for an organized approach to software/hardware selection are: •All involved staff should contribute to an assessment of current computer capabilities and projection of future needs. •Alternatives are analyzed to determine what software and hardware is available and how selections may possibly be merged into the existing computer system. The evaluation process focuses on details of program capability and hardware compatibility. Analysis must be done to determine how closely individual programs fit the established requirements. The final decision is often a balance of needs between program capabilities and hardware availability. Any programs selected must be able to run on existing and newly purchased hardware. Any additional hardware selected must be capable of meshing with the available computer system.

Jan 1, 1983

By AIME AIME

THE iron and steel activities of this meeting opened on Monday morning with the steel melting session," with G. B. Waterhouse in the chair and A. L. Feild as vice-chairman. N. A. Zeigler's paper, on "Gases Extracted From Iron Carbon Alloys by Vacuum Melbing," created considerable interest and the discussion in general was most favorable. H. W. Gillett and Louis Jordan of the Bureau questioned the method of analysis for oxygen and C. H. Herty, Jr., and J. M. Gaines, Jr., I , expressed their surprise at the large amount of oxygen with the high ,carbon alloys. Whether the gases found existed as gas in blowholes or as oxide inclusions was also a moot point. A paper by C. D. King, on "Basic Open-Hearth Yields," was an extremely interesting and valuable contribution. It was discussed by C. E.Kinney and A. L. Feild and numerous questions were asked throughout the presentation. Mr. King then presented a critical analysis of the losses together with novel methods of calculating them. A paper by C. H. Herty, Jr., and J. M. Gaines, Jr., on "Unreduced Oxides in Pig Iron and Their Elimination in the Basic Open-Hearth Furnace," followed. The question of silicates and oxides in pig iron created much discussion, notably by Henry Hanson and W. J. MacKenzie, who gave figures on chipping cost as a function of blast-furnace practice.

Jan 1, 1929

[NOTE.-The following discussions of papers contained in this volume are printed without regard to order of succession. It has been impracticable to secure from the various parties, corrected reports of their contributions in time to effect any particular desired arrangement in this respect. The papers of Messrs. Pourcel, Osmond and Sauveur, were considered at Chicago together with others of cognate character ; and the whole discussion will be found in vol. xxiii., under the head, " Physics of Steel."]

Jan 1, 1894

Henry Louis, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England (communication to the Secretary): I think very highly of the novel and ingenious device of Prof. Richards for analyzing the movement of the various elements of the jig; it is a method that certainly seems to promise valuable results, if we could only make certain that these various indicator-appliances have no effect upon the action of the jig. I would like, however, to suggest that in future experiments the connection between the plunger indicator-rod and the pencil should be made by means of parallel motions, so as better to reproduce the rectilinear motion of the piston. I should expect, if this were done, that the " curve " of the plunger in the Harz jig, at any rate, would be represented either by straight lines or else by quite regular curves, according to the method by which the plunger is set in motion; the apparent combinatioil of straight line and curve seems difficult to explain. With respect to the water-curve, I am afraid I am completely at fault, but no doubt Prof. Richards can explain my difficulty. In Fig. 2, the areas of the screen-side and the plunger-side of the jig are equal. If the piston be a fair fit and the bottom of

Jan 1, 1897

By Samuel S. Wyer

THE following abbreviations have been used in, the text: Cassier's, Cassier's Magazine. Eng. Lond., The Engineer (London). Eng. Mag., Engineering Magazine. Eng. and Min. Jour., Engineering and Mining Journal. Eng. News, Engineering News. Eng. Rec., Engineering Record. Engng., Engineering. Engr., The Engineer (Chicago). J. I. and S. I., Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. Jour. F. I., Journal of the Franklin Institute. Jour. Assn. Eng. Soc., Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies. Mar. Eng., Marine Engineering. . Mem, Soc. Ing. Civ., France, Memoires de la Society des Ingenieurs Civils, France. Prac. Eng., Practical Engineer. Proc. Digs. Soc. of W. Pa., Proceedings of the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania. Proc. I. C. E., Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Proc. I. 1M. E., Proceedings Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Trans. A. I. M. E., Transactions of the American Institute Mining Engineers. Sci. Am., Scientific American. Sci. Am. Sup., Scientific American Supplement. Zcitschr. d. V. D. Ing., Zeitschrift des Vereines Dentscher Ingcnieure.

Mar 1, 1905

US 4,133,866-Selective recovery of the bound sodium content of red mud obtained in the production of alumina by the Bayer process The red mud is mixed with aqueous ferric sulfate, the resulting suspension stirred intensively at a temperature of 15-85°C and adjusted to a pH value of from 4.4 to 4 6, and the solids are removed. The clarified solution of sodium sulfate can be used directly for the leaching of additional bauxite T Lakatos, M Miskei, J Szolnoki, F. Toth, and L Revesz, assigned to Aluminiumipan Tervezo es Kutato Intezet, Almasfuzitoi Timfoldgyar, and MTA Geokemiai Kutatolaboratorium. Jan. 9, 1979. 3 pp (423-208). Filed: 10¬28-77 (846,588) Priority: Hungary, 10-29-76 (AU 364). US 4,145,398-Continuous digestion of bauxite with aqueous sodium hydroxide, with higher throughput in existing plants or the construction of smaller plants with equivalent capacity The ore suspension at a solids concentration of 1-6% by weight and temperature of 200-300°C is flowed through a digestion tube or nest of tubes at a velocity of preferably from 2 to 5 m/s and under a pressure of from 10 to 200 atm Heat is supplied by a fluid heat carrier flowing in countercurrent in a concentric outer tube. Preferably, some of the red mud is recycled to the digestion operation. L. Plass, assigned to Vereinigte Aluminium-Werke A.G Mar 20, 1979. 5 pp. (423-121) Filed: 2-27-76 (754,749) Same: British 1,437,548, dated May 26, 1976 Same Canadian 1,008,253, dated Apr 12, 1977. US 4,146,573-An aqueous slurry of red mud, formed in the Bayer process production of alumina from bauxite, can be solidified by treating the red mud with a described quaternary ammonium salt, continuing mixing until the red mud has set up to a rigid mass, and recovering the solidified concentrated red mud J Kane, assigned to Nalco Chemical Co Mar 27, 1979 4 pp (423-82). Filed 8-2-78 (930,251).

Jan 1, 1980

By H. M. Howe, W. E. C. Eustis

THE processes which form the Subject of this paper have been experimented on in the laboratory of W. E. C. Eustis, but have not passed beyond the experimental stage. The first is the invention of Mr. J. L. Thomson, of Capelton, Quebec, Canada, the others have been invented by the writers. THOMSON'S PROCESS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF NICKEL This consists essentially in first rendering the nickel magnetic, and then separating it from the materials. with which it is mechanically

Jan 1, 1882

By Willard S. Morse

The purpose of this paper is to record the results obtained in the use of the Russell process at Aspen, Colo., covering a period of fourteen months, from November, 1891, to December, 1892, during which time over 30,000 tons of ore, purchased outright, on sample and assay, were treated. No explanation of results will be attempted, nor will the chemistry of the process be discussed. The plant was designed by C. A. Stetefeldt, of San Francisco, and built by the owners by day-labor. The entire plant is run by water-power, supplied by a flume 3600 feet long, and a pipe-line 2200 feet long, with a head of 170 feet. A Pelton water-wheel, 8 feet in diameter, is used, from which power is transmitted by wire-rope to the main counter-shaft in the mill, a distance of about 250 feet. From the mill to the samplingworks, about 150 feet, power is also transmitted by a wirerope. A Pelton water-wheel, 3 feet in diameter, supplies power to the dynamo for lighting the plant. The works are located adjoining the Santa Fe railroad tracks, and all ore and supplies are unloaded directly from the cars to the works. The sampling-works are provided with crushers and rolls, the latter being used only on samples, and not on the entire ore. The Cornish hand-quartering method is used in sampling ore for purchase. After crushing and sampling, the ore goes to the bedding-floor, where it is made up into mixtures suitable for the mill. The drying-plant consists of four Stetefeldt double shelfdryers, six shelves high, and is provided with dust-chambers and a stack 65 feet high for draft. These dryers are fired with gas

Jan 1, 1896

By E. R. Brownscombe, Francis Collins

The pressure distribution in a reservoir producing an incompressible fluid by radial flow in a horizontal structure is a simple logarithmic function' used daily by reservoir engineers. The assumption of an incompressible liquid is equivalent to assuming that pressure is maintained constant at the well radius and at some external "radius of drainage," or, in other words, that the entire flow into the well passes across the external radius. In most cases a well is surrounded by other wells draining adjoining areas so that the "radius of drainage" is not a line of constant pressure with flow equal to the flow into the well but rather a contour of zero pressure gradient across which no flow occurs, production being due to the expansion of the liquid within the area. The radial flow steady state pressure distribution for this case does not seem to be extensively used despite the fact that the mathematical analysis has been given in detail' and the results are simple and generally applicable. 'The object of this discussion is to develop this result from a physical rather than a mathematical viewpoint, thereby aiding intuition in judging circumstances to which it may be applicable. If the production rate at a well in an unsaturated reservoir is maintained constant while no flow occurs across the outer radius a steady state will soon be reached in which the flow rate or pressure gradient is constant with time at all points in the reservoir. To preserve such a condition it is necessary that the pressure decline at the same rate at all points in the reservoir, that is, the curves of pressure versus radial distance at successive times are all parallel. Then each unit volume of oil is expanding at the same rate and contributing an equal share to the production. The rate of flow q across any circle r is thus proportional to the volume of the reservoir between r and the external radius re, or q = qw (I-r2/r2e) ......(1) where q, is the production from the well and it is assumed that rw is very small compared with re. This equation can be combined with the differential form of Darcy's law for radial flow, 2phkr dp q =—— ........(2) aµß dr ( where q is not a constant as in the incompressible flow case but is a function of r given by Equation (1). If Equation (1) is substituted in Equation (2) the variables p and r can be separated and the result integrated to obtain the pressure distribution p = pw +--------In------------- 2pkh[ rw 2re2] ......(3) This equation differs from the incompressible case only in the addition of the term proportional to the square of the radius

Jan 1, 1950

By Arnold Hoffman

A RESPONSIBLE steel executive recently declared that scrap shortages, despite fantastic prices reaching up to $50 per ton, are responsible for the loss of 140,000 tons of steel a month and that in March 1947 alone 25 more steel furnaces could have been operating were it not for scrap scarcities. His answer to this serious situation was to ask for a speedier flow of scrap and also abolition of Government control over pig iron distribution. It would be more logical, perhaps, if an answer to this growing problem of scrap deficiency were sought within the steel industry itself. As long ago as 1933, L. B. Lindemuth, a consulting steel metallurgist, warned the steel industry that a shortage of scrap was inevitable and that beyond 1938, adequate supplies for open-hearth furnaces could not be expected. The outbreak of war, with consequent phenomenal demands on the industry, accelerated production of steel and further worsened the scrap situation. Today we are suffering from a condition which could have been prevented had the industry been more far-seeing and provided for an inevitable contingency. However, better late than never, and measures can now be taken to alleviate permanently scrap shortages in the future. This can be done by greater utilization of heavy sinter which experience proved is an excellent substitute for scrao and lump ore.

Jan 1, 1947

By Harlowe Hardinqe

ABOUT three years ago a distinctive new type of crushing and grinding equipment, known as the Hadsel mill, was announced. A description appeared in the November, 1932, issue of this magazine. Any machine that would take run-of-mine ore and reduce it, in one operation, and at a reasonable cost, to a size suitable for metallurgical treatment was bound to attract much interest, as the original Hadsel mill did. The first commercial sizes were built with the drum supported by an overhung shaft and partly immersed in a tank. The drum carried inside and outside buckets to lift the ore, which was dropped as the drum revolved onto stationary breaker plates projecting into the drum from the opposite tank wall. The coarser material settled back into the inside buckets. Intermediate sizes were carried into the tank, and this material was scooped out by the outside buckets and deposited hack in the drum for further grinding. The fines were carried out of the mill with the wash water over an adjustable weir at one side of the tank.

Jan 1, 1935

By David B. Burrows, Francis R. Conley

INTRODUCTION A prerequisite to the evaluation and management of oil properties is accurate information derived from the analysis of core samples; but reliable data, such as porosity and permeability, can result only if all oil and water have been removed from the core samples analyzed. The most common method of core cleaning used to date has been Soxhlet extraction—a somewhat static technique, which depends upon the slow diffusion of hot solvent through the core sample. Soxhlet extraction performs satisfactorily only with highly permeable samples and at best requires long cleaning periods. The centrifuge method was developed in 1951 by Continental Oil Co. to overcome the inefficiencies inherent in the Soxhlet method. The new method is basically an operation in which hot solvents are caused to flow through the samples under the influence of centrifugal force. The centrifuge unit has proved so successful that samples which formerly required days for partial extraction can now be completely cleaned in approximately one hour. The original idea was conceived in 1950 by Elmer S. Messer, whose early experiments consisted of flowing solvent over sandstone samples suspended in a revolving basket and driven by a vertically mounted vacuum cleaner motor. Results were so outstanding that more permanent units were constructed. A modified model using this basic design was recently built by Core Laboratories, Inc., and is now used regularly in their operations. DESIGN Fig. 1 shows a photograph of the two extractors routinely used to clean small core plugs in the Production Research Div. of Continental Oil Co.'s Ponca City laboratories. For illustrative purposes, the basket from one of the units has been removed, and because both extrac- tors are of identical design only one is described in the following discussion. Each extractor unit consists of a centrifuge and a solvent still. The core basket of the centrifuge is made of mild cold rolled steel 7 1/2 in. in diameter and 1 1/8 in. deep. The basket holds 18 1-in. samples (cubical or cylindrical) and is attached directly to a cone fitted to the shaft of the motor. Both the outer rim and the hollow hub of the basket contain perforations for the passage of solvent and extract. The solvent is delivered to the perforations by means of a copper tube inserted into the hollow hub. The motor is a vertical tool post grinder motor; (115 v, 5.6 amp, 0-60 cycles, AC-DC, rated at 1/3 hp). It has a rated speed of 10,000 rpm under full load and 15,000 rpm with no load. Variation of speed is obtained by the use of a variable transformer. The solvent still was constructed from one end of a stainless steel oxygen bottle by inserting a heating element, sight glass, and piping as shown on the schematic diagram, Fig. 2. The heater used was a three-position, 1,000 w, 115-v, immersion type. Intermittent flow of solvent to the centrifuge is obtained by means of a siphon bottle inserted between the condenser and the centrifuge.

Jan 1, 1957

By Edgar F. Cruft

INTRODUCTION It is sometimes said that "mines are made, and not found." I rather doubt that the exploration geologist would be overly sympathetic to that statement, and, of course, like most one-liners it is only partly true. Access to different financial markets are important at the mineral prospect stage. The modern mine financier has a much more complex, and interesting, job than the financiers of an earlier era, for example, the Canadian financiers of the 40's and 50's who had one simple set of options; i.e. float a company, promote it, and sell an equity stock issue, and then promote it some more. QUALITIES OF A FINANCIER Because technical people are seldom taught financing in their basic training, and because they are usually not involved in it until at quite a senior level in their careers, the whole field often acquires a certain mystique. The engineering professions have too often believed financing is the province of the accountant or financial executive and just as we in the technical world are often too quick to bristle if the latter try to tread on our domain, the opposite can just as easily be true. Unfortunately, this is another example of a compartmentalized individual, and that is one thing the successful financier cannot be. However, to be a successful financier one does not need extensive training or experience in accounting or finance. In fact it can sometimes be a disadvantage to get too buried in working only from the standpoint of discounted cash-flow analyses, ROI's, etc. It must be stressed, however, that one had better know how these analyses are made, and be knowledgeable in understanding a balance sheet, and have a good understanding of financial terminology. The difference between a simple project-type debt financing with a commercial bank and a more inventive and creative financial package comes from an intuition and an experience relating to risk-reward factors. The most important element is "common-sense", based on knowledge and experience. The goal is structure a financial package that fits the project, and in so doing it is important to recognize that it must fit within the limitations of the group supplying the money. I find insensitivity to recognize these constraints the most common mistake made in the field. Put yourself in the other person's place and understand his sources of funds and financing limitations. The engineer has an advantage in financing, as he or she has (or should have) a better idea than anyone of the value of the product, be it the mine, prospect, or company i.e. the intangible or potential worth which cannot be put on a pro-forma. He also knows, or should know, the risks involved. Two projects might look the same on paper, but a good financier must have a sense of when to take whatever deal he can get, and when to hold out based on his evaluation of future developments. It is essential to have a good sense of commodity values and trends, trends affecting the general economy (money supply, interest rates, effects of energy costs, etc.), and political considerations. He must also have a good understanding of the science and art of taxation as deals can often be financed using the government as a silent and unwitting partner by proper use of the tax laws. WHEN TO SEEK FINANCE The first critical decision to make in financing a mineral prospect is "when". At the exploration level, when it is only a dream in the geologist's eye, the alternatives are more limited than when it is a fully-engineered project. The "when" decision depends on how much in internal funds the company has to play with, and how desirable it is to invite financial participation to spread the risk. Assuming that decision is not taken out of lack of money, no one can categorically say when to do it. There is

Jan 1, 1985

By Carle Hayward

IN reheating quenched steel to remove part of the hardness, the softening effect has generally been considered to be a function of temperature and time. The temperature effect is well known, and long before pyrometers were heard of the blacksmith was able to do a good job of tempering, by rule-of-thumb methods and experience in judging temperatures. Modern conditions, which demand steel that will withstand the severest tests, require that the heat treatment he carried out with every possible precaution to secure the best results obtainable. Pyrometers and heat-treatment furnaces of many types are on the market and improvements are continually being made so that it is now possible to regulate the temperature in heat treatment very accurately. There is -still a question regarding the time that the steel should be subjected to treatment. It is customary with all operators to insure the desired tem-pressure throughout the specimen and it is generally supposed that a longer treatment of a hardened steel produces a further softening but there are few published figures showing the exact effect of time of treat-ment at constant temperature. A search of the literature disclosed several brief statements that the tempering effect was a function of both time and temperature, but in no case were any figures given. The opinion is very generally held that the well-known tempering colors are accurate indicators of the degree of tempering. This is disputed by Brearley (The Heat Treatment of Tool Steel, page 102) who states: It has been said that the result would be the same in respect to both hardness and other properties whether the colors were obtained by a shorter heating at a higher temperature or a longer heating at a lower one. This, to say the least, is a very doubtful conclusion, and is certainly not borne out by mechanical tests on oil-hardened and tempered motor car steels, which, after tempering for periods varying from 15 min to 2 hr., show no very great differences. The present investigation had for its object the obtaining of some definite data regarding the effect of time, which might serve as a guide to those engaged in the heat treatment of steel. The Rhode Island Tool Co. cooperated by furnishing the steel and machining the test specimens.

Jan 2, 1917

By R. T. DeHoff

A general method for determining the geometric properties of structures composed of particles which are all the same shape and size is presented. The application of the method requires a knowledge of' the qualitative shape of the particles in the structure, ad a maximum of three simple counting measurenzents, which are made on a representative plane section taken through the structure. It is also shown that the number of different kinds of measurements necessary JOY the complete description of the structure can be decreased if some independent information about individual particles is available. The geometric properties that can be determined quantitatiz~ely from counting measurements for susch structures are size, shape, number, surface area, vlolume, ad such extensive properties as volume Mction and surface area per unit volume. THE simplest kinds of measurements that may be made on a metallographic section are counting measurements. There are three such simple counting measurements, which are determined by sampling the microstructure with a point, a line, and an area. The first of these, the point count, is probably the most familiar among metallographers. The second count, the number of intersections a test line makes with particle outline, is somewhat more recent in its origin and application. The third counting measurement, the number of particle sections observed in unit area of the plane of polish, has long been used in the estimation of grain sizes. The real utility of these three counting measurements lies in the fact that they are rigorously and unambiguously related to certain extensive geometric properties of the three-dimensional structure of which the metallographic section is a sample. These relationships will be reviewed briefly below. Of somewhat secondary importance to the fundamental relationships is the observation that, if some simplifying assumptions about the geometry of the three-dimensional structure are introduced, manipulation of the counting measurements gives a more complete description of the structure. Specifically, in addition to the extensive properties which these measurements rigorously estimate, the number of particles, their size, and their shape may be determined. The purpose of the present paper is to explore the consequences of introducing the assumption of constant size and shape. A later paper will deal with the estimation of geometric properties of structures which may be characterized by a two-parameter size distribution. It should be mentioned that the introduction of this simplest of assumptions, while clearly not generally justified in metallurgical structures, is not without precedent. For example, many estimates of the number of particles per unit volume of structure, based upon a single counting measurement, are scattered throughout the literature.13 Virtually all of these developments assume a constant particle shape, e.g., spherical or polyhydral, and constant size. That such an assumption is necessary is evident from the fact that, for more general structures, more than a single parameter is required to describe the three-dimensional structure, so that the determination of a single parameter on a section would be insufficient to specify the structure. Similar developments for the estimation of particle size from a single counting measurement, e.g., routine grain-size determinations, make the same very limiting assumption,435 but have nonetheless proven of practical value. The present paper embodies a generalized approach to the development of relationships among the two-dimensional counting measurements and the three-dimensional geometry of the structure, subject to the assumption of constant particle size and shape. It is the hope of the author that by presenting the relationships and the assumptions involved in dealing with this approximation, in a single, unified treatment, the reader may be impressed with the usefulness of the counting measurements, may be guided in their application to the estimation of details of the geometry in specific structures in which he may be interested, and may be moved to apply the results, with understanding, to new structural problems. Several authors6, 7 have demonstrated independently that it is possible to obtain unbiased estimates

Jan 1, 1964

By Oliver Bowles

AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORT by highway, which has become indispensable to modern life either in peace or war, involves the use of powerful machines, many of which travel at high speed. To start, accelerate, and stop each motor vehicle demands the use of clutch and brake. Friction is applied intensively to both these mechanisms, and their linings must therefore be of materials that will resist wear and that will not ignite with the heat of friction. Asbestos, that curious fire-resisting: natural fiber that may be woven into unburnable cloth, is eminently suitable for this special' use, and no satisfactory substitute for it has yet been found Because- asbestos is regarded as absolutely essential to all types of motor transport on land, and in addition is indispensable to. many .other kinds of machines and equipment, the situation of the- United State's with respect to supplies of-raw-material-is of special interest: From the standpoint of national self-sufficiency, conditions are far, from satisfactory, for United States mines furnish only three to four percent of the total domestic require-

Jan 1, 1938

By J. E. Tobey

THERE are a lot of good things about this great industry of ours. Let us stop commiserating and consider some of the things that are right in this business. Coal is number one in the basic material industries. Our civilization owes more to it than to any other basic commodity. We are literally immersed in the benefactions of coal. In cur man-made world it is indispensable and we are constantly surrounded by objects, materials, and services which owe their existence to coal. Practically all the important materials, such as iron, steel, brick, cement, lime, rubber, glass, cotton, and wood have felt its magic touch.

Jan 1, 1939

By Howard N. Eavenson

ALL of the matters so far taken up by the Institute Committee on Stabilization of the Coal Industry will be of help, but it seems to be that under present conditions not very much can be expected until the railroad situation has been improved. As an instance of this, I would cite the fact of our experience at our mines in West Virginia and Kentucky. During 1917 and 1918 at our West Virginia plants we produced for our own consumption, practically entirely in the Chicago district, about 4,750,000 net tons of coal. In 1919 our output was reduced to 3,500,000 tons, this being caused partly by the shortage of orders in the few months following the armistice, but more particularly by The car shortage which began last September and continued throughout the remainder of the year, with the exception of December. This car shortage has been more acute since the first of the year, and while we now have an actual capacity here of 20,000 tons daily and have the equipment to produce it, with the possible exception of a few houses, we are able to average only about 12,000 tons, and in consequence, about 30 per cent. of our by-product ovens in the Chicago district are idle, and a number of blast furnaces are down for the want of coke. These figures, of course, refer to conditions before the strike of switchmen in April was started.

Jan 1, 1920

By J. T. Ryan

SAFETY practice or the elimination of accidents in our coal mines is specifically a problem of management. It cannot be delegated to any governmental agency except that the various coal-producing states do and should have some minimum safety standard laws. However, the legislative method of attempting to control mine accidents is ineffective because of the delay between the necessity and the action. It will always be impossible to keep our various state mining laws up to date; and when the law says you must do a certain thin there is a tendency to do this and no more. Unless the scheme for setting up state regulations is so flexible that when a new hazard develops it can be immediately and adequately covered and the whole responsibility for accident elimination placed undivided on the

Jan 1, 1937