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By Rudiger Baltz

The sudden failure of bodies of rock is a serious problem commonly experienced in the international mining industry. These explosive releases of energy are referred-to as ?bumps?, ?outbursts? and ?rockbursts?. Rockbursts can occur at such a rapid speed that they present a direct threat to safety in large parts of the mine workings. The build-up of excess stress within the body of rock can be attributed to different causes. In shallow workings, for example, sudden and violent failure of the roof strata can be caused by leaving insufficient pillar width when practising room-and-pillar mining. At much greater working depths, as it is the case in the German coal industry, rockbursts are generally attributable to high levels of rock pressure. This can even result in coal outbursts when driving individual roadways. More than thirty years ago the German coal industry suffered from numerous rockburst incidents which caused many deaths and serious injuries. This led directly to the establishment of the Rockburst Prevention Centre, which was created at the instigation of the mining companies and the chief mines inspectorate. The consistent logging and analysis of all rockburst incidents has led to the development of a system that is still used as a basis for preventing underground rockbursts and minimising the risk of such phenomena occurring. Working closely with the mining authorities and mining companies the accredited experts of the Rockburst Prevention Centre have played a key role in helping to develop and implement a range of methods for the early detection and prevention of rockbursts.

Jan 1, 2008

By Robert M. Cox

The successful application of the science of rock mechanics to the practical problems of coal mine design requires the acquisition and reduction to useable form of large amounts of field and laboratory data, and the construction and analyses of numerous geostructural models containing a wide variety of geometric and physical strength variables. Typically, the rime constraints placed on a new mine design project coupled with the inherent complexities of a good rock mechanics study combine to limit the applications of rock mechanics to the most rudimentary level. To facilitate a better application of rock mechanics to mine design problems, an interactive software package has been developed for use on a graphic mini-computer system that serves to aid the engineer in the timely and efficient analyses of rock mechanics data and geostructural models. The first phase of the rock mechanics package solicits the input of the raw geologic and rock strength data, analyzes and arranges this data in a logical manner, produces complete listings and statisitical summaries of the various rock properties, and stores the data on magnetic tapes and disks to serve as a future Rock Mechanics Data Base. The second phase of the software package provides for the analyses of a variety of geostructural models using a wide variety of geometric variables coupled with the rock strength data stored in the Rock Mechanics Data Base. This software package allows for the evaluation of numerous geostructural mine models for the design and selection of mine roof support and pillar systems (see Table l).

Jan 1, 1982

By S. Paul Singh

Rock burst is one of the most serious mining hazards, adversely affecting the safety, economy and productivity of mines. It is a sudden manifestation of the release of strain energy stored in the rock mass. At present, there is no universally accepted method for predicting the timing of the rock burst. However, if the seismically hazardous regions in mines can be identified before they are exposed to mining then precautionary measures can be planned before the work begins. A study was conducted in Sudbury Nickel Belt and an approach has been proposed to identify rock burst prone workings on the basis of (a) Rock properties and bursting indices (b) In-situ approaches (c) Geological features (d) Mining conditions (e) Observations during mining operations (f) Comparison and analogy with previous case histories of bursting. This approach will facilitate the judicious application of the burst control techniques to seismically hazardous areas.

Jan 1, 2008

By G. J. Hasenfus

This paper presents the results of an extensive hydrological and geomechanical monitoring program which Gas conducted at a longwall coal mine in W. Va. The field program included monitoring of groundwater levels. overburden hydraulic conductivity, overburden movement, and surface subsidence relative to the passage of the longwall. Overburden geology and rock strength characteristics were evaluated prior to mining. A postmining corehole was drilled to evaluate main roof fracturing. An overburden response model is proposed based on the correlations between hydrological and geomechanical data.

Jan 1, 1988

By Ihsan Berk Tulu, Keith A. Heasley, Chris Mark

"The Analysis of Retreat l\.fining Pillar Stability (ARJ\1PS) and the Lal\.fodel programs have been used successfully in the U.S. for designing safe pillar recovery operations for many years. However, the recent Crandall Canyon l\.fine collapse showed that further research is required to improve the pillar design for recovery under deep cover. To this end, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the West Virginia University (WVU) l\.fining Engineering Department have been working together to improve both the ARJ\1PS and the Lal\.fodel programs.This paper compares and analyzes the overburden loads calculated by ARJ\1PS 2002, the new ARJ\1PS 2010, and the Lal\.fodel program with regard to the retreat pillar line, the gob, and the barrier pillars. The analysis shows a number of distinct differences between the ARJ\1PS and Lal\.fodel loading distributions. Ultimately, the programs, with their distinctive load distributions, are used to analyze a database of 52 deep cover pillar retreat case studies, and the ability of each program to discriminate between successful and unsuccessful retreat pillar plans is evaluated.INTRODUCTIONThe Analysis of Retreat l\.fining Pillar Stability (ARJ\.f PS) and the Lal\.fodel programs have been used successfully in the U.S. for designing safe pillar recovery operations for many years. However, the recent Crandall Canyon l\.fine collapse showed that further research is required to improve the pillar design for recovery under deep cover.Pillar recovery accounts for less than 10% of the coal produced from underground coal mines; however, in the period between 1989 and 1996, it accounted for more than 25% of all ground fatalities (l\.fark et al., 2003). In the past 15 years, the safety of retreat mining operations has greatly improved. l\.fark (2009) explains three steps promoted by l\1SHA and NIOSH for safer pillar recovery:1) Global stability through proper pillar design2) Local stability through proper roof support3) Worker safety through proper section managementThe ARJ\1PS and Lal\.fodel (Heasley, 1998) programs have been playing an important role in guiding mine operators in designing pillars to ensure the global stability of a retreat panel."

Jan 1, 2010

By Anthony Iannacchione

Coal mine bursts have represented a major hazard for U.S. mining operations for more than 90 years. During this time, many prevention controls have been developed and tested. This paper reviews 11 prevention control techniques. Although coal mine bursts are not common events in most underground coal mines, their occurrence almost always requires a change in mining practice. Over the many years of dealing with these hazards, specialized requirements for layouts and novel extraction sequences have been developed on a site specific basis. The keys to mitigating risks are to properly assess the coal burst hazards and to possess the knowledge and skills to prevent or remediate their occurrence.

Jan 1, 2008

By J. Brasfield

Jim Walter Resources, along with the Rock Mechanics Branch of British Coal and Strata Control Technology Pty. Ltd., is presently studying the yield-stable-yield pillar design in use at the Blue Creek No. 7 Mine located in Brookwood, Alabama. This paper describes the steps taken to determine stresses on the strata surrounding the pre-driven development entries. It also describes the installation and monitoring of stress cells and extensometers used to quantify the stress build-up and strata movement associated with the headgate pass of a longwall panel. The findings of this study will be used to design and predict the performance of a 2 entry yield pillar system in the Parkgate Seam at Welbeck Colliery in the United Kingdom. Stress measurements and strata movement data from No. 7 Mine and Welbeck will be used to develop a computer model that can predict the performance of such a pillar system in British mines. Jim Walter Resources will use this data to study the performance of the present yield-stable-yield pillar system in order to determine if conditions will allow the stable pillar width to be decreased while maintaining current standards of safety and production.

Jan 1, 1994

By Kazem Oraee

In underground coal mining, particularly room-and-pillar methods, the coal pillars play a significant role in roof stability. If the pillar dimensions are increased, the pillar bearing capacity also increases, but more coal remains in the pillar and therefore the recovery of mining operation decreases. Therefore, determining the optimum pillar dimension based on technical, economical and performance parameters is important. In this paper, the coal pillar is designed by using the concept of ground reaction curve (GRC). For this purpose, the GRC for coal pillars is drawn and then the elastic and plastic zone of coal pillar behavior is determined. Based on elastic and plastic zone, different equations are presented to draw a pillar reaction curve and the process of coal pillar design based on GRC is explained. As a case study, this new technique is applied to study the coal pillar state in Tabas coal mine of Iran. The results show that the presented new approach is successfully used in the design of the optimum coal pillar dimensions, and also determines the elastic and plastic behavior limit, which is important especially for the logical design of yield pillars.

Jan 1, 2009

By Andrzej Walentek

This paper presents the results of numerical modeling of the fractured zone around longwall gateroads. The numerical computations have been based on the results of underground measurements of the fractured zone around longwall gateroads, which were performed for various geological and mining conditions and measured with the use of the endoscopic method with a digital camera. Having results of the underground investigations, trials of duplicating them by the Finite Element Method using software PHASE and the Hoek-Brown failure criterion were performed. In order that the fractured zone predicted by the model-based computations closely simulate that measured underground, some selected parameters in the Hoek-Brown failure criterion were modified based on the earlier determined relations used for prediction of the roof-to-floor convergence in longwall gateroads. As a result, the model-based computations produce results very close to those obtained from the underground measurements. Determination of the fractured-rock zone around the mine roads is of great importance to mining practice, especially in planning and designing supports for longwall gateroads. The influence of the front abutment pressure causes the fractured rock zone around the roads to increase and results in an increase of support load. Moreover, proper determination of the fractured rock zone is one of basic elements in the process of planning roof bolting for mine workings.

Jan 1, 2009

By Ismet Canbulat, John Naylor, Jason Emery, Peter Craig, Andy Sykes

"Longwall mining is by far the most common method of underground coal extraction in Australia. The industry trends and expectations are placing increasing emphasis on the reliability and productivity of these operations. The longwalls are becoming wider and longer while retreat rates are continuously increasing due to significant improvements achieved in longwall equipment reliability and automation. This increased longwall productivity is placing significant emphasis on the reliability of longwall panel development.Although there have been significant improvements in the reliability of continuous miners and hydraulic drill rigs, the traditional resin encapsulated bolt installation is still the principal method used in all major coal-producing countries around the world. Anglo American realised an opportunity existed to introduce an alternative roof bolt installation technique called “spin to stall” in Australia. Spin to stall was first introduced in Anglo American Coal in South Africa where it has been successfully used for over a decade, though implementation of South African spin to stall resin in Australia has proven to be near impossible due to a significant difference in geotechnical conditions, mining method, and, subsequently, roof bolting equipment. Therefore, a new spin to stall development project was initiated between Anglo American Coal and Jennmar Australia (SPIN2STALL®). This paper summarises the journey of this project, the results, and the successful implementation of spin to stall achieved at Grasstree Mine.INTRODUCTIONThe Anglo American Coal business unit operates Grasstree and Moranbah North underground longwall mines in the Bowen Basin of Central Queensland, with a third longwall mine, Grosvenor, currently being developed, and two more (Aquila and Moranbah South) in the project pipeline. The vision for Anglo American is to achieve “Zero Harm” through the effective management of safety at all operations, while for the coal business unit, at the same time to achieve industry-leading operational performance. Currently, both Grasstree and Moranbah North longwalls are operating at industry best practice rates. This is placing increased pressure on the development process to allow such high productivity levels to be sustainable."

Jan 1, 2015

By Mike Faure

Hercules cribs make use of timber loaded parallel and perpendicular to the grain. Maximum use is made of the orthotropic properties of timber resulting in crib- having superior strength, high initial stiffness and controlled post yield deformations. Blocks and timbers can be combined in many different ways resulting in thousands of different geometries. Each geometry has a specific combination of block on block, timber on timber and block on timber contact area which results in a unique performance. Each crib can be fingerprinted by defining four parameters relating to its load/deformation curve. If the geometry is known, the performance can be predicted with a high degree of accuracy. If the mine support requirements are known, the crib geometries can be designed which met theme requirements in the most cost effective manner Hercules cribs come closest to satisfying mine support requirements. Due to the flexibility of the concept and their superior strength, they can be employed in most mining situations to enhance safety, improve productivity, reduce working costs or improve profitability.

Jan 1, 1993

By John Latilla

Exxaro Mining?s Matla Coal situated in Mpumalanga, South Africa operates two shortwall faces on the No 4 and No 2 seam while the No 5 seam has also been longwalled in the past. Severe strata loading events have lead to a number of serious roof falls on the wall face (facebreaks) resulting in safety threats as well as considerable production losses. In 2002 the No 4 seam shortwall suffered a facebreak restricted mainly to the tailgate side of the mining panel due to a thick, near surface dolerite sill not breaking properly. This was partly due to the premature suspension of longwalling in the overlying No 5 seam. The resultant overloading lead to severe pillar damage and subsequent bord collapse. Surface pre-split blasting was successfully used to relieve the pressure as well as to pre-condition the dolerite above the following two panels. The shortwall on the No 2 seam has experienced mid-face loading due to No 4 seam chain pillars lying over this area and creating a secondary cantilever effect. Pre-split blasting of the solid rock above the No 4 seam pillars has resulted in a significant reduction in the number of facebreaks. The panel layout of the No 2 seam was subsequently changed so that the chain pillars on both the No 4 and No 2 seam are superimposed whereas previously they were offset.

Jan 1, 2007

By Nic Slatalla

Resin anchored rock bolts are an effective tool to control the deformation of an underground opening because they combine high support capacity with fast installation. However, there are still numerous shortcomings concerning the understanding and interaction of the system bolt-resin-rock. Field and laboratory test series have been conducted for evaluating the load capacity and bond strength of resin grouted rock bolts in different host rocks under axial load. This paper describes that the behavior and shear strength of the system bolt-resin-rock depends on the rock type and discusses a simple correlation between peak shear strength and shear stiffness in the ratio 1:1000 which may moreover be helpful for estimating rock bolt capacity after installation.

Jan 1, 2006

By Yi Luo

Subsidence events occurred over inactive room and pillar (R&P) mines, including abandoned mines or sealed portions of active mines, are classified as unplanned subsidence because of their timing and distribution are unpredictable. When investigating such subsidence cases, many uncertainties exist and disputes often focused on whether the observed structural damages are caused by mine subsidence or other natural or artificial causes. However, solid evidences to identify the causes are often lacking. In order to conduct a thorough and impartial investigation, good knowledge in subsidence theories and other ground control subjects and broad experience are required.

Jan 1, 2009

By Rajagopala Reddy Kallu

After the Sago and Darby No. 1 mine incidents, the new regulatory standards for the design of mine seals in underground coal mines of the United States require the mine seals to withstand higher explosion standards. This necessitated for the development of new design approaches and standards. For development of any new design standards or approaches a detailed understanding of effect of key influencing parameters on the stability of mine seal is a must. This paper attempts to address one of the factors, i.e. roof convergence, that play an important role in the stability of mine seal under explosion loading. Initially a couple of three dimensional numerical models were built and tested for different levels of roof convergence. These models confirmed that roof convergence has great influence on seal stability. A detailed study is undertaken, with some simple assumptions, to establish typical influence of roof convergence on the stability of mine seal under different levels of static explosion pressures. Three dimensional distinct element code 3DEC is used for this purpose.

Jan 1, 2007

By Essie Esterhuizen, John Ellenberger, Dennis Dolinar

"Underground stone mines in the United States use the room-and- pillar method of mining. The stability of the roof between pillars determines the mining dimensions and size of equipment that can be used. The findings of a survey of roof span stability issues and design practices are presented, and the observed factors contributing to roof instability are discussed. Identified stability issues are evaluated, such as maximum roof span, horizontal stress, and roof beam stability. The results of field observations, roof monitoring, and numerical analyses are used in the evaluation. The importance of the first roof beam thickness and its impact on roof stability and support requirements is presented. An evaluation of the current experience with stone mine roof spans relative to international experience is presented. A step-by-step design procedure is suggested which emphazises the need to collect adequate geotechnical data, understand the immediate roof stability, select a mining direction, and meet support requirements.INTRODUCTIONIn room-and-pillar mines, the roof between the pillars is required to remain stable during mining operations for haulage as well as access to the working areas. Roof and rib falls account for about 15% of all reportable injuries in underground stone mines (Mine Safety and Health Administration, 2009). Therefore, the stability of the roof is an important safety consideration. The size of the rooms in underground stone mines is largely dictated by the size of the mining equipment. Large mining equipment is used, requiring openings that are on average 13.5 m (44 ft) wide by approximately 7.5 m (25 ft) high to operate effectively (Esterhuizen et al., 2007). The dimensions of the roof spans are largely predetermined by the equipment requirements, and design is focused on optimizing stability under the prevailing rock conditions. If the rock mass conditions are such that the desired stable spans cannot be achieved cost effectively, it is unlikely that underground mining will proceed. In addition, large roof falls can extend across the full width of a room and may extend more than 5 m (16 ft) above the roof line. These large falls are a safety hazard and can have a significant impact on mine access and production. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) research into stone mine roof stability has focused on identifying both the causes of roof instability and techniques to optimize stability through design."

Jan 1, 2010

By Kelvin K. Wu

A coal waste disposal dam failed on Buffalo Creek near Saunders, West Virginia, on February 26, 1972. This accident resulted in the loss of 125 lives, left over 4000 people homeless, and resulted in millions of dollars in damage to several downstream communities. As a result of this tragic event, major changes occurred in the mine waste disposal practices used by the U.S. coal industry. This paper summarizes changes in U.S. coal-waste disposal practices in the nearly 35 years since the Buffalo Creek dam failure and identifies safety issues that need to be addressed for continued improvement. While many organizations and individuals have played roles in the improvements that have occurred, this paper focuses on the role played by MSHA and its predecessor agencies.

Jan 1, 2006

By Mark K. Larson

Researchers at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health?s (NIOSH) Spokane Research Laboratory are developing a borehole profilometer to dynamically measure the roughness pro-file of boreholes used to install roof bolts fully encapsulated with resin. Numerical measures of roughness were calculated from profiles of borehole surface roughness to determine potential roof bolt anchorage capacity. The concept of dynamically profiling was proven through the following series of laboratory tests: a sensitiv-ity test using various grits of sandpaper, a known-profile test along a section of a concrete hole, and a simulated borehole test in a pipe with machined grooves. Two profilometer prototypes were devel-oped that measure slight changes in the radius of a borehole using either strain-gauged, spring-steel arms or rigid, steel arms attached to a spring-loaded cone and a linear potentiometer. Both instruments performed reasonably well in the laboratory and were subsequently tested in boreholes drilled in two concrete blocks using different drilling techniques to obtain three different borehole surface roughnesses. A Z2 roughness parameter was calculated with data from the first profilometer, and an average radial increment was calculated from the test results of the second profilometer. Although both instruments were able to readily distinguish the difference between smooth and rough boreholes, the correlation coefficient (r2) for a linear relationship between Z2 and average radial increment was 0.577. Pull tests were conducted with resin bolts installed in the concrete blocks, but maximum pull-out strength could not be correlated to borehole roughness because in each of these tests, failure occurred at the resin-bolt interface. A more sophisticated prototype has been designed to measure surface roughness and also accurately determine the location and tilt of the instrument in the borehole. However, this instrument has not yet been fabricated or tested.

Jan 1, 2007

By Vincent A. Scovazzo

Benchmarking is a business management process that seeks improvement through the study and reapplication of practices conducted by industry leaders. This discussion presents objectives and organization of benchmarking applied to mining geomechanics. Similar procedures have been successfully applied to mining companies, laboratories, and research organizations involved in mining geomechanics throughout the world. Benchmarking is a structured process that allows an organization to learn from the "best" in the field. The objectives of benchmarking vary depending on the company's targeted areas for improvements. Typical goals include ground control cost reduction, enhanced safety, optimization of geotechnical staffing, development of state-of-the-art design procedures, or the adoption of the "best in the field" geotechnical data management. Once the objective of the study is established and the practices and procedures to be benchmarked are identified, a benchmarking team is formed from internal and outside specialists. Benchmarking in geomechanics is fundamentally different than in most other fields because of the effects of local geologic conditions and regulations, both of which must be understood by all on the benchmarking team, before a comparative analysis can be made.

Jan 1, 2000

By Peter Fischer

Reducing mining costs has become such an important factor in the German coal industry that operators are forced to work only those areas where production costs can be kept low. These areas will normally be located close to the mine shafts because they are easily accessible. Even the shaft pillar is now being considered as part of the winning zone. Before working coal in shaft pillar zones it is essential to assess the impact this will have on the shaft lining. There is a huge difference between sliding and strata-anchored shaft systems. However, if the overburden comprises lightweight soil both types of shaft will have a tendency to protrude from the surrounding ground. This paper presents the geomechanical reasons underlying this reaction and the methods used for predicting and measuring it.

Jan 1, 2007