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By Norman Brown

It is suggested that the difference in ease of cross-slip among the fcc metals determines the relative amounts of [111] and [100] wire texture which occur in each metal. Since the ease of cross-slip is controlled by the stacking fault energy, it turns out that the amount of [111] texture should increase as the stacking fault energy increases. Arguments and existing data are presented to support the above suggestion. THE fcc metals generally have a dual texture, [11 and [loo], after wire drawing. As yet no fundament explanation exists concerning the variation of the amounts of each texture among the metals. Barrett&apos; has compiled data which show how the relative amounts of each texture vary from 100 pct [Ill] in the case of aluminum to 25 pct [l1] for silver. In this paper it is suggested that the value of stacking fault energy plays a major part in determining the amount of each type of texture. The double texture has its origin in the classical rotation of a single crystal under tension. An equilibrium position of the crystal is one in which three or more equivalent slip systems are operating simu taneously. Most crystals, initially, tend to rotate toward the [1ll] or the [l00] pole depending upon its initial orientation. This single-crystal behavior is essentially the same as the rotational behavior of the polycrystalline metal as worked out by Taylor.2 The next point to consider is whether the [Ill] or [100] orientation is more stable. There have been many discussions of this question3&apos;" which, in general, have lead to the conclusion that 11111 is most stable. For example, Pickus and Mathewson 4 suggested that a [Ill] texture produces more effective flow becake the [ 110] slip direction makes a smaller angle with the [111] than with the [loo]. A crude statistical argument will be presented which again favors the (1111 orientation. In order to maintain a pure [loo] wire texure, slip must occur in equal proportions in four of the six possible <110>slip directions. In order to maintain a pure [Ill] texture, slip must occur in equal proportions in only three of the six <110>directions. Since the <110> directions are the only slip directions in a fcc metal and if it is assumed that each of these six directions is equally probable, then the relative probability of a [1ll] texture vs a [l00] texture may be calculated. The statistical weight of a particular texture is the multiplicity of a texture times the probability of obtaining any one. The statistical weight for [Ill] is

Jan 1, 1962

By R. E. Anderson, R. S. Busk

The mechanical properties of many nonferrous alloys can be modified by heat-treatment. This is almost always effected by controlling the amount of alloy in solid solution and the amount and distribution of second-phase material. The latter often is accomplished through precipitation or age-hardening treatments. The procedure is to solution-heat-treat the metal to provide a supersaturated solid solution and then cause precipitation of the dissolved material at some temperature below the solvus for the alloy. The generally used magnesium sand-casting alloys arc based on the ternary alloy system Mg-Al-Zn. Solid diffusion reactions in the system are slow enough so that a substantially completely supersaturated solulion is maintained even though the metal is relatively slowly cooled from heat-treating temperatures. Consequently, it is general practice to air-cool magnesium-alloy castings from the heat-treatment temperature prior to aging at an elevated temperature. Since it is necessary with many other alloys to cool quite rapidly before aging if optimum benefit from the aging is to be obtained, this study was undertaken to determine the effects of quenching on magnesium alloys. The] alloys used are shown in Table I, being selected as typical of the presently used magnesium alloys. Cooling Rates Since quenching is a means of rapidly extracting heat, there are two factors of interest in its study: (I) the rates of cooling that can be obtained and (2) the effect of various rates on the as-cooled as well as subsequently aged metal. The cooling rates were measured by drilling a hole 1/16- in diameter longitudi~lally in the center of a cylinder % in. in diameter and 3 in. long. The drilling was stopped to place the end of the hole at the center of the long axis of the cylinder. An iron-constantan thermocouple was inserted in this hole and wedged in place. The temperature drop during rapid quenching was recorded by a special1y built General Electric potentiometer recorder capab1e of measuring &apos; 500°F. temperature drop in 1/10 sec. For the slower cooling rates in air or oil, the temperature drop was measured by a Leeds and Northrup potentiometer recorder with the chart speed increased to One inch per minute&apos; The cylinder was heated to the desired temperature, quenched as desired, and the temperature-time curve recorded. The cooling rates in still air, in oil at 350°F., in water at 180°F. and in a cold, high-pressure water spray were determined in this manner. The results of this study are presented in Fig. I. There is a great difference between water quenching and either air or oil quenching. There is little difference between the hot water quench and the cold water spray. Cooling rates were also

Jan 1, 1945

By F. E. Bedale

STUDY of several severe mine explosions that occurred during the winter of 1907 led to the belief that coal dust was a definite explosion hazard. The Consolidation Coal Co. was a pioneer in the early work to&apos; eliminate this hazard and to combat the dangers incident to poor ventilation and the presence of methane. Maintenance of high humidity throughout the mines was one of the first measures adopted, later to be superseded by rock-dusting. In the twenty years from 1907 on, many safety measures were developed and adopted, and several prizes were won, though the practice was crude by present-day standards. But in 1927, the company went to work in earnest, and organized a Department of Safety with adequate personnel and with authority to enforce all approved rules for the prevention of accidents and the preservation of company property. All plans for new construction work, changes in mining systems, and proposals for the purchase of new mining equipment had to receive the approval of this Department. A set of operating- and safety standards was written to govern the activities of all employees, and physical examinations for them were required.

Jan 1, 1938

By Paul Weir

PRODUCTION METHODS in the bituminous coal mines in the United States are undergoing many changes. Although the primary object of these changes is the production of a better product at a cheaper cost there are other considerations such as the improvement of conditions under which miners live and work. The almost complete unionization of the manual workers in the industry during the past four years has &apos;brought with it a stabilization of wages on a relatively high basis and of hours of work per day and per week on a relatively low basis. With differentials in wages between producing districts firmly established, and with a nation- wide and uniform application of in-

Jan 1, 1937

By F. X. Tartaron

This paper deals with basic physical phenomena, which when combined and interpreted, lead to the same mathematical equations that describe comminution phenomena. Thus, a physical model is described that corresponds to the mathematical model presented in the writer&apos;s previous papers. &apos;12 In the mathematical model, the energy consumed in breakage is related to the volume or weight of material broken and the size of particles broken. The equation E=2.303 Ck-a log x1/x2 was derived by multiplying the volume or weight of each size in an ideal Gates-Gaudin-Schumann size distribution by an energy factor. The product of these two factors gives the energy distribution among the different sizes in a single size distribution. The energy of breakage of a specific constant weight of one size distribution to another size distribution is given by the equation E = constant/kn-1. In this case, where the volume or weight is constant, the energy is proportional to the size factor 1/kn-1. In what follows, a physical theory will be presented showing that the energy consumed in comminution is proportional to the volume or weight of the material broken and to the reciprocal of the size of this material raised to a constant exponent. THE VOLUME FACTOR The atomic theory of matter reveals that in solids, atoms or ions are arranged so as to be in equilibrium at specific distances from one another. Although the atoms or ions are oscillating, there is a definite determinable mean distance between them and this distance is a balance between repulsive and attractive electrical forces. It therefore requires force to separate the atoms or ions and when an outside force is applied, it first produces strain in increasing the distance between the atoms or ions. This strain increases to the breakage limit on application of sufficient force. In brittle materials, there is negligible plasticity and when an elastic limit is exceeded, breakage takes place. The work done is the force applied per unit area times the cross sectional area of the ideal particle multiplied by the maximum strain per unit length at right angles to the area times the length of the particle. Thus the work done is proportional to the area times the length, which is equivalent to the volume of the ideal particle. If more than one feed particle is considered broken, each particle must be subjected to sufficient strain so that the breakage limit of its contained atoms or ions is reached in order for the particle to be broken. Thus, the energy of breakage is proportional to the total volume of the particles broken. If the particles are of different sizes, the size factor must be included to get a correct determination of energy of breakage. In the preceding, it has been assumed that there is a constant binding force between the atoms throughout the volume being strained. This, of course, is not true. It is known that there are many irregularities in the structure of matter and the binding force differs markedly in different portions. But the differences are only discernible by examining extremely small subdivisions of matter. In one order of magnitude of volume, cracks can be discerned separately from non-cracked neighboring material. In a smaller subdivision of volume, lattice dislocations can be isolated. When these situations are brought into focus, mechanisms of their behavior can be learned, leading to a fuller understanding of phenomena that occur in larger scale subdivisions of matter. Very often, however, the mechanisms that operate in small scale subdivisions have negligible effect in those of large scale, and there still is a place for deriving a mechanism for large scale conditions. The quantum theory is extremely valuable for use with photons and electrons, but is of negligible use with ordinary atoms and molecules. This paper deals with relatively large scale subdivisions of volume present in comminution phenomena. Hence, the effects of cracks, lattice dislocations, misplaced atoms, etc., are smoothed out in an average, constant for each relatively large subdivision of volume. This attitude is supported by experience. If two 10 cc samples of the same ore were ground identically, the same product would be obtained. However, if two samples, each a cubic micron, were conceived to be broken, then one sample might contain a crack and the other not, hence a different product would be obtained. Experience shows that ordinary samples used in comminution, behave as though no irregularity existed

Jan 1, 1964

By George S. Rice

DEFINITE data on the amplitude and effect of ground movement in specific mineral formations, caused by various methods used in the mining of ores, coal, and nonmetals, or in the extraction through wells of petroleum, sulphur, and soluble salts, are increasingly needed because of legal liabilities from damage to overlying or adjacent properties, and growing concern as to the conservation of national mineral resources. Not since the committee was established in 1923 has it been so difficult to get technical papers giving ground movement and subsidence data from specific mine operators. The reasons given, as above indicated, are pending or threatening lawsuits. There are three major objectives in ground movement and subsidence studies : (1) Maximum recovery of a mineral resource. (2) Minimizing damage to surface structures, highways, railroads, and agricultural lands caused by caving or subsidence, which may in some situations, as along the Gulf of Mexico shore, cause flooding by surface waters. (3) Lessening damage to overlying or adjacent mineral by back-filling of mine excavations as completely as possible.

Jan 1, 1940

By James P. Roe

I. INTRODUCTION. THOSE who deem the subject of this paper an old and super¬seded one may recall with advantage the words of the great proverb-maker, bidding us to seek the new in the ashes of the old. The manufacture of wrought-iron began with the small hearth built upon an eminence, and relying on the wind for blast. Next came, either the hearth about 12 in. in diameter by 2 ft. in height, blown by a man operating two goat-skins for bellows, or, a hearth of greatly varying diameter and about 10 ft. high, depending for its blast upon natural draft. The former appeared in India, the latter in Burmah; and both were in operation until quite recently, though their origin is lost in prehistoric times. The Catalan forge was the evolutionary descendant of the foregoing, and the parent of the Blase-ofen, which in turn led to the high bloomary or " Stückofen," the father of the blast-furnace, as a producer of cast-iron. The production of cast-iron checked the growth of the direct processes; and led to the introduction of various hearths, such as the Walloon, for low-silicon irons; and the South Wales process, combining the run-out fire with the finery, for higher-silicon irons. Some of these are still in operation in localities possessing the necessary raw materials; and their product is used for purposes requiring wrought-iron of exceptional quality, the supply of which is still smaller than the demand. We have to look back but a century and a quarter to see the introduction of the puddling process by Henry Cort; a process which, reinforced by the iron-oxide bottoms and fettling of Hall, was not less revolutionary in character, and more revo-

Jul 1, 1905

By Freeman Bishop

The Bureau of Mines is working on a long-term program to completely revolutionize mining-to create a mine-systems technology that integrates the need to recover minerals at low cost under safe and healthful working conditions while protecting the environment. Everyone should be brought into the planning process preceding each new mining development, the Interior Department urges, and Assistant Secretary Hollis M. Dole seems determined to push this kind of systems approach with everything he can move.

Jan 1, 1970

By Sallie McCabe Johnson

LIFE IN RUSSIA for the foreign woman is hard. It is up to her whether her days are spent in tearful longing for ironic or whether she :hakes the real effort to ferret out the interesting or amusing side of such exasperating conditions as ooh a Russian can conjure. So to begin Discard all promises.. This is perhaps the most difficult thins- to learn but promises in Russia are nut what they are at home. There are many reasons for ibis, sonic good and some bad but whatever the reason. the fact remains that they are usually worthless- as each of us must slowly learn In, disappointment after disappointment. Also we must learn that we cannot expect to get or to do a certain thing just because someone else has done so. What we did yesterday perhaps cannot be dune today. What we purchased air hour ago, oxen ten minutes ago- we cannot purchase now. What our neighbor did this morning we cannot do this afternoon. Changes arc continuous. Every person&apos;s experience is different from that of another aid this in a great measure accounts for the conflicting stories brought horns. In a land of chaos we live only from hour to hour and this is one of the exceedingly exasperating conditions to face. When I wished to visit Leningrad, an overnight nip from Moscow, more than a week&apos;s lime w as required to obtain a ticket, vi en through the efficiency of lntourist: alone I might have spent a month at it. Each day

Jan 1, 1932

By Frederick J. Rich

INTRODUCTION Coal characterization involves a variety of analyses which are designed to yield as much information as possible about the properties of coal. The types of analyses which are now regarded as necessary for any truly quantitative assessment of coal include the following: 1. proximate analysis 2. ultimate analysis 3. petrographic analysis The two traditional forms of analyses are the proximate and ultimate types. A proximate determination reveals the amount of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash which are present in the coal. Nowadays, a sulfur determination is usually included in the proximate analysis. The ultimate analysis, in contrast, includes a major alkaline oxide determination, which tells how much sodium, calcium, and potassium are found in a sample. Sulfur forms, i.e. sulfide and sulfate vs organic sulfur, are also identified as well as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and trace element concentrations. Proximate and ultimate analyses have been used for many years. The petrographic analysis, one which identifies and quantifies organic microcomponents of coal, is a comparatively new technique of coal characterization. Petrography adds great detail to a coal analysis and, to be sure, is a necessary component of any complete analysis. Coal is not at all uniform in its composition. Material from different mines within one coal-producing region will display varia-

Jan 1, 1983

By A. D. Kennedy

No major breakthroughs in concentration technology were made during the year, but solid advances were made in engineering. Perhaps the most significant was the growing acceptance of the unified or "systems approach" to mineral extraction, processing, refining, transportation and marketing. Under the systems approach, transportation is no longer some- one else&apos;s business, but a high cost item within the planning engineer&apos;s purview. The Savage River pipeline 1,2 and the Marconaflo process3,4 for land and ocean transport of iron ore slurry, are examples showing that evaluation of transportation as part of a unitized system can lead to innovation, and the determination of the physical location of some of the operations. There is even speculation that the cost reductions possible by ocean transport of iron ore slurry may bring in more plants using direct-reduction steelmaking processes.4 Some perennial problems can be solved by application of the systems approach; for example, under this concept the replacement of three small shovels in the pit with two larger shovels is not permissible on the basis of lower operating costs; the resulting change in ore blending upon metallurgical performance must first be evaluated to prove whether or not the change is economically beneficial to the entire operation (perhaps new storage-blending facilities will be indicated).

Jan 1, 1970

By T. D. Tiemann

The purpose of this writing is to make available additional data, not previously published, on the extraction of silica from certain iron ores of Wisconsin and Minnesota and to discuss a possible method of processing. Results of investigations on the extraction of silica from low grade iron ores have been previously presented and discussed in detail in AIME Transactions.1,2 All of the ores investigated are essentially nonmagnetic and consist mainly of hematite, goethite and quartz. Much of the quartz is microcrystalline, particularly in the taconites. The ore from the Cuyuna range contains in addition manganese oxides. Briefly, the method consists in digesting a sample of the ore under pressure in a solution of sodium hy-

Jan 1, 1965

By George Hulst

PRIOR to 1914, there was little demand for antimony in this country; its use was limited almost entirely to the manufacture of type and bearing metals. Practically no antimony ore was mined here, the market being supplied principally from China, and the alloy was produced by a direct mixing of lead and antimony. The great world war, with its demand for shrapnel in hitherto undreamed of quantities, precipitated a great boom in the price of antimony. Nominally quoted at 6 c. to 7 c. in 1914, the price increased by leaps and bounds to 45 c. in March, 1916. Under the stimulus of high prices many shall mines were opened, for it became profitable to work ores containing as low as 20 percent. antimony. High-grade sulfide ores (stibnite), containing 55 per cent. to 60 per cent. antimony, were received from Bolivia, China, and Alaska. Low-grade sulfide ores, running from 20 per cent. to 45 per cent., were produced in Nevada, California, Idaho, Utah, and Mexico; much of this ore was fairly rich in silver. The principal oxide ores came from Mexico and Oregon. The following analyses are representative of various types of antimony ore: Se Pn Cu Ao Au SIC), Fe S CAO ZN As Oxide Ore 25.09 46.02 0.95 0.40 10.98 0.30 0.22 Sulfide ore 5.5.20. 15.12 1.05 19.87 ? 0.40 0.25 Sulfide Ore 37.16 11.30 0.10 34.0 7.60 0.50 17.05 7.40 0.36 0.10 Sulfide Ore 41.55 15.00 0.20 76.0 0.04 5.60 0.25 18.17 0.85 0.25 0.10 The International Lead Refining Co. fortunately was equipped to handle these ores through residue and blast furnaces. The charge consisted of a variety of sulfide ores containing Sb 20 to 60 per cent. and Si02 6 to 45 per cent., oxide ores containing Sb 20 to 40 per cent. and SiO2 10 to 45 per cent. Secondary materials, such as battery plates, battery mud, lead oxide, paint, etc., together with refinery skims, softener skims, and other refinery byproducts, were treated along with the antimony ore to furnish the lead required. All silver-bearing antimony ores were treated in the residue furnace, the sulfur, iron, and copper forming matte that carried part of the silver, the balance going into lead bullion. The

Jan 9, 1919

By Mark J. Klein

The behavior of nitrogen in Cr-0.12 at. pct Y was studied in specimens of varying interstitial concentration and thermal history. It was found that soluble nitrogen can be introduced into this alloy by increasing the concentrations of either oxygen or nitrogen. For low nitrogen concentrations the nitrogen in solution is low relative to that in unalloyed chromium. However, the nitrogen in solution increases with increasing nitrogen concentration, approaching that in unalloyed chromium. When the alloy is supersaturated with nitrogen, the nitrogen precipitates readily from solution as a chromium nitride. The stress -induced relaxation of nitrogen is influenced by internal oxidation or internal nitrification of this alloy. THE addition of small concentrations of reactive elements such as yttrium have been found to enhance the low-temperature ductility of chromium.&apos; However, the mechanism by which the ductility is increased is not known. It has been suggested that this effect is caused by a drastic reduction in the concentration of nitrogen retained in solution and therefore a decrease in the number of dislocations locked by nitrogen, a factor that has been associated with an increase in ductility.1,2 However, a change in the type of interstitial precipitate induced by yttrium could also contribute to enhanced ductility of the alloy, since chromium nitride precipitates appear to be embrittling.&apos; In this regard, it has been shown that yttrium scavenges nitrogen in chromium to form YN,4 thus reducing the embrittling chromium nitride phase. However, the change in nitrogen solubility induced by yttrium and the partition of nitrogen between chromium and yttrium nitrides are not known. The object of this investigation is to study the effect of yttrium on the behavior of nitrogen in chromium to obtain information relevant to the mechanism by which scavengers enhance the ductility of chromium. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The experimental procedures used in this investigation have been described in detail elsewhere.5,6 Wires of Cr-0.12 at. pct Y, 15 cm in length and 1 mm in diam, were drawn from rods 0.6 cm in diam supplied by the General Electric Co. The grain size of the wires after recrystallization at 1150°C was somewhat nonuniform, varying from 0.006 to 0.06 mm in diam. The interstitial analysis for the wires in ppm by weight was about 160 0, 80 N, 12 C, and <2 H. Heat treatments were carried out after encapsulation of the specimens in quartz tubes containing argon. Changes in interstitial concentrations, or interstitial "loading" as it is termed in this study, were generally accomplished by annealing in oxygen, ammonia or methane at 1150°C. The internal friction was measured using a conventional torsional pendulum enclosed in an evacuated chamber. Electrical-resistivity measurements were made at liquid-nitrogen temperature.

Jan 1, 1967

By Charles A. Morgan

The proms of mire drawing depends upon the property which certain metals possess, termed ductility, which is defined in Brande&apos;s Dictionary of Science as a property inconhequcnce of which metals may be drawn out at length wilhotit interrupting the continuity of their constituent parts. As ticfincd thy M. Tresca, it is the property of flowing when subjected to pressure, and ie termed by him the "flow of solids," in his paper, read before the AcaiXemy of Sciences in Paris, November, 1866 * In the simple language of the wire shop, it is that quality in certain metals that thcm to be drawn (or etretched) out througl~ a tapering hole in a metal block or die, the die being more dense and harder than the metal to be redud. It is a fact well known to tllose slrillet1 in the ai*, that to eu~xeed in drawing iron or steel wire, it is of&apos; the utmost, importance to have tborough lubritatiun, as a lack of it woullii udu-se abrasion of the wire, or of the walls of the tapering hole in the dia or plate, and quickly put an end to the operation. In drawing coarse or large sizes of pire, say & inoh diameter, the pressure upon the sides of the tay~dng hole, where the wire comes i.u contact with the die, so great that an ordina,y labricaot is equeezed out when the nsoal rc~luctions iu size are matie, and abrasion takea place. In order to meet this diffic:ulty, and emure proper lubrication, it has been a ccmmon prtictice for yazrs to apply a paste made of rye or wheaten flour, or lime, to the surface of the wire to be drawn, and when the pnstc is dry, to smwr tl~e wire with tallow or grease; the wire is then ready to be draw, the dried pa serving fo prevent the lubricant from being presetf out in the prows. Some years since, when Bessemer metal came iargely into use material for wire, &apos;the writer fourid that its dmwing requid so much more power than iron wire, that he was led to institute a. series of trials to ascertain the difference in power required. It was fotind that Bessemer wire requircd from 100 to 200 per cent. more power to makc the same reduction in sizes than soft iron wire, the difference depending npou the amount of carbon and other chemical constitu-

Jan 1, 1881

By G. S. Upadhyaya, A. D. McQuillan

HERE would appear to be a simple relationship between the group number in the periodic table of the early transition metals and the maximum amount of hydrogen which they can absorb.&apos; Thus group IIIA metals (Sc, Y, and La) yield a trihydride in which the metal atoms are on a fcc lattice and the hydrogen atoms occupy both tetrahedral and octahedral interstices. Group IVA metals (Ti, Zr, Hf) form dihy-drides in which the metal atoms are on either a fct or cubic lattice, but in which only the tetrahedral interstices are occupied by hydrogen atoms. In group VA (V, Nb, Ta) the hydrogen-saturated metal attains a composition slightly below that of a monohydride under normal conditions. Finally the metals of group VIA (Cr, Mo, W) do not dissolve appreciable quantities of hydrogen. The manner in which hydrogen solubility disappears on alloying a group VA metal with one from group VIA has previously been investigated.2 It is necessary, in order to obtain a general picture of the reactions of alloys of the early transition metals with hydrogen, to examine a system containing metals from groups IVA and VA in which there must be a change from a fcc to a bee hydride phase. The system chosen for investigation was the pseudobinary system between titanium hydride and niobium hydride. Metallic alloys were prepared by melting iodide-prepared titanium with zone-refined niobium in an argon-atmosphere are-furnace. To ensure homogeneity each alloy was cold-swaged and then heated at 1250°C in a high-vacuum furnace until metallo-graphic examination confirmed its complete homogeneity. Small weighed specimens of the alloys were charged with hydrogen using gaseous hydrogen generated by heating titanium hydride. The apparatus has been described elsewhere.3 Throughout the charging process the hydrogen pressure was kept at about 1 atm while the specimen, initially at 800 °C, was slowly cooled to 150°C over a period of days. The total amount of hydrogen absorbed by each specimen and the room-temperature crystal structure of the hydride powders were determined. The X-ray investigation indicates that the fee hydride phase arises from alloys extending in composition from titanium to 67 at. pct Nb. After a two-phase field lying between 67 and 74 at. pct Nb in which the fee and bee hydrides coexist, all alloys richer in niobium yield a distorted bee hydride. Data derived from parameter measurements are presented in Fig. 1. The atomic volume per metal atom has been plotted against the composition of the initial metallic alloy in order to facilitate comparison of the effects of hydrogen addition in the two phases of different crystal structure. The amount of hydrogen absorbed by each alloy at saturation in terms of the hydrogen to metal ratio and alloy composition is given in Fig. 2. Over the whole range of the fee hydride phase the hydrogen content remains constant, while in the distorted body-centred hydride phase, the hydrogen content increases with increasing titanium content reaching a hydrogen/metal ratio of 1.4 at the boundary of the two-phase region. It seems likely, therefore, that the maximum hydrogen content of the fee hydrides is limited to a hydrogen/metal ratio of 2 because hydrogen atoms

Jan 1, 1962

By Oliver Bowles

EACH year the broad diversified field of industrial minerals offers a panorama of new and interesting developments that not only concern the welfare of the industries themselves but have a more or less direct influence on the lives of citizens at large. Thus, the home life of multirudes may be affected by new building units that transmit light through walls instead of windows, by illuminated processed marble lighting fixtures and decorations, by the vast impetus given to thermal insulation Ly .mineral wool, expanded vermiculite, and related products, and, more remotely, by fireproof rugs and drap-

Jan 1, 1937

By W. H. Geis

The following pages summarize the causes that led to the suggestion of unit operation of the paloma field, the organization of com-mittees, preparation of the Paloma Operators Agreement and the reasons for rejection of the plan. Introduction Long ago an Austrian physicist observed that under certain conditions the condensation of a liquid from gaseous mixtures resulted from pressure reduction. Some 50 years later he would have known that his research was not in vain. He would have seen a group of serious operators and engineers seeking to apply that principle to a conservation . program for unitized production in the Paloma gas field—but he would also have been saddened to see that forces unsympathetic to the application of science in oil production, with little or no appreciation of modern methods and the advantages of cooperation, so far have prevented the adoption of that program. Soon after the Paloma field was discovered it was realized that all the hydrocarbons in the reservoir existed in the gaseous phase. This condition was confirmed over a large area. Therefore, if the field was to be properly exploited with the greatest ultimate recovery of condensate, the hydrocarbons in the reservoir must be produced in the single or gas phase. They must be cautiously extracted with the least possible reduction of the natural pressure. If this could be accomplished, or if artificial pressure control were utilized, the condensation and underground loss of the valuable distillate would be preventable—otherwise it would not be. Wholehearted cooperation of all oper-ators was required in order to accomplish the conservation purposes of the program. To this end the production engineers of the several companies concerned lent their time and talents. They fully investigated the physical relationships of the products within the complicated gaseous mixture, prepared extensive reports on the subject and drew up a reasonably efficient plan of operations, which now is commonly called the "Paloma Unit Plan" but actually was entitled "The Paloma Operators Agreement." All of the engineers were not in perfect agreement on all the features of the plan, or even on all the engineering principles. However, it is safe to say that on all the important or essential factors there was a unanimity of opinion, particularly as to the objectives. These were fairly simple and reduce to one controlling item, "pressure control" by cycling or recycling. Organization The principal operators initiated the program by calling a meeting of all the lessees in the area, at which an organization was perfected, known as the "Paloma Operators Committee." Various subcommittees were appointed to expedite the work, including an "Engineering Committee." These func-tioned in a businesslike manner, frequently reported to the superior committee and

Jan 1, 1942

By W. H. Geis

The following pages summarize the causes that led to the suggestion of unit operation of the paloma field, the organization of com-mittees, preparation of the Paloma Operators Agreement and the reasons for rejection of the plan. Introduction Long ago an Austrian physicist observed that under certain conditions the condensation of a liquid from gaseous mixtures resulted from pressure reduction. Some 50 years later he would have known that his research was not in vain. He would have seen a group of serious operators and engineers seeking to apply that principle to a conservation . program for unitized production in the Paloma gas field—but he would also have been saddened to see that forces unsympathetic to the application of science in oil production, with little or no appreciation of modern methods and the advantages of cooperation, so far have prevented the adoption of that program. Soon after the Paloma field was discovered it was realized that all the hydrocarbons in the reservoir existed in the gaseous phase. This condition was confirmed over a large area. Therefore, if the field was to be properly exploited with the greatest ultimate recovery of condensate, the hydrocarbons in the reservoir must be produced in the single or gas phase. They must be cautiously extracted with the least possible reduction of the natural pressure. If this could be accomplished, or if artificial pressure control were utilized, the condensation and underground loss of the valuable distillate would be preventable—otherwise it would not be. Wholehearted cooperation of all oper-ators was required in order to accomplish the conservation purposes of the program. To this end the production engineers of the several companies concerned lent their time and talents. They fully investigated the physical relationships of the products within the complicated gaseous mixture, prepared extensive reports on the subject and drew up a reasonably efficient plan of operations, which now is commonly called the "Paloma Unit Plan" but actually was entitled "The Paloma Operators Agreement." All of the engineers were not in perfect agreement on all the features of the plan, or even on all the engineering principles. However, it is safe to say that on all the important or essential factors there was a unanimity of opinion, particularly as to the objectives. These were fairly simple and reduce to one controlling item, "pressure control" by cycling or recycling. Organization The principal operators initiated the program by calling a meeting of all the lessees in the area, at which an organization was perfected, known as the "Paloma Operators Committee." Various subcommittees were appointed to expedite the work, including an "Engineering Committee." These func-tioned in a businesslike manner, frequently reported to the superior committee and

Jan 1, 1942

By Hallet R. Robbins

KOREA, the ancient " Hermit Kingdom," is a peninsula jutting out from the coast of eastern Asia. By the natives it is called " Chosen," which, translated, means " Land of the Morning Calm." It lies between the Yellow sea and the Sea of Japan. On the north it is separated from Manchuria and the Russian province of Primorsk by the Yalu and Tiumen rivers ; on the south the Korean straits interpose a rough voyage of 120 miles to the nearest point in Japan. The entire country is situated between the parallels of 34° and 42° N. latitude. The surface of the country is made up of successive ranges of unglaciated mountains, separated by narrow, fertile, and more or less densely populated, valleys. Through all the obscure centuries of its history, Korea has succeeded in maintaining a monastic seclusion, over which, from time immemorial until the late Chino-Japanese war in 1894, China exercised a shadowy sovereignty. Although Korea had been forced into slight foreign contact previously, her first foreign treaty was signed with Japan in 1876. Under the restraining guardianship of China, the Japanese treaty bore but insignificant innovations for Korea; but when, in 1883, a treaty was made with the United States, the first of the western nations, a decade after the American gunboats, under Commodore Rodgers and Lieutenant Schley, forced their way up the Salee river, shooting daylight through the ancient walls and fastnesses, Korea awoke from her sleep of 4,000 years. The Korean peninsula suddenly became the arena where rival nations&apos; enterprises and individuals met in fiercest conflict. Out of this struggle grew two singularly successful American

Jan 7, 1908