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By C. Q. Cupps

Rate of gas diffusion in reservoir oil has been investigated in an effort to explain the variation in oil characteristics observed in the Weber Sandstone reservoir, Rangely field, Colorado. Coefficients of gas diffusion were determined experimentally for the Rangely oil system and used in a mathematical simulation of gas diffusion during the probable life of the Rangely reservoir, estimated at 65 million years. The simulator involved solution of Fick's law for diffusion in two dimensions by the method of finite difference and successive over-relaxation. The results show that continuing gas diffusion is a logical explanation for the variation in oil characteristics at Rangely and that the pattern of gas distribution by diffusion in an asymmetrical reservoir will not conform to structural contours as originally proposed.

Jan 1, 1971

By D. L. Boreck

Thick coal seams are common in the Western United States, Many seams are over 50 it thick (some are over 200 ft thick) and are too deep to extract using surface methods. Currently, such deposits are developed using standard "eastern" mining methods which only extract a few feet of total seam thickness, often rendering the remaining coal unminable with current technology. Novel methods that increase thick-seam recovery have been developed and are currently being used in Europe. These methods--high-face single-pass and multislice longwall, longwall caving, and hydraulic mining--have great potential for use in the United States. Successful use of these methods is an objective of the Bureau of Mines. Their use requires, among other things, a full evaluation of geologic features common to thick coals. The objective of this report is to present and summarize those features that will affect the introduction of the methods into thick-seam mines in the Western United States. The geologic elements delineated are three-dimensional configuration of the seam, cleat development, joints and fractures, roof and floor lithology, and faulting.

Jan 1, 1986

The object of this program was to extend the capabilities of visual paging systems both in size and function. The system developed uses the mine pager phone line for communication, monitoring, and remote control. A central station, using a mini-computer, transmits signals by phase inversion modulation of a 16,384 Hz carrier to as many as 999 remote units. The remote unit addressed returns an echo to indicate that it is functioning and, in the case of monitor units, to convey the monitor data. Magnetically latched display discs, which can be seen from both sides when posted, are used for visual paging. Lists of the addresses of posted pages, unanswered pages, and non-echoing units are prepared by the central station computer. The system was designed to be intrinsically safe and should operate for three months on a 12-volt lantern battery.

Jan 10, 1980

By Thomas M. Barczak, Ron Smith

Steel liner plates, which are bolted together to form a shell, are commonly used to provide temporary protective linings in the tunneling industry to ensure the stability of the tunnel and safety of the workers until more permanent ground reinforcement can be installed. As the ground deforms to try and close the opening, the liner plate is radially stressed, and by deforming redistributes these loads back to the surrounding insitu earth. Grouting behind the plates is done to fill any voids and ensure uniform contact to the strata around the back of the plates. Another function of the liner plate in some applications is to act as a platform or structure for the mining machine to react against in order to develop the necessary forward thrust to be able to excavate the face. In this case, the liner plates are loaded axially as a horizontal column of bolted liner plate rings, creating a jacking force against the liner plate assembly. In general, the buckling strength of the plate sections determines the jacking force capacity. Historically, the jacking force capacity of tunnel liner plates has been theoretically determined by some simplistic equations developed from tests of single liner plates. Recently, full-scale tests on a complete circular section of bolted liner plate ring segments have been conducted in the NIOSH Safety Structures Testing Laboratory using the unique Mine Roof Simulator to apply controlled loading in a manner that simulates the real world environment. Due to the unique size and capacity of the Mine Roof Simulator, these are believed to be the first full-scale tests conducted on the jacking force capability of tunnel liner plate rings. These tests indicate that the previously used theoretical equations tend to over predict the jacking force capacity of these tunnel liner plates. Unanticipated deformations in the field have been observed at loads below these theoretical design loads, therefore, a more accurate determination of the jacking force capability was needed. This report summarizes the full-scale test results, examines design parameters that impact the jacking force capability, and develops new mathematical models to improve the prediction of design loads.

By Walter E. Pittman

This Bureau of Mines study surveys the current state of technology and the various research efforts that have been undertaken to dewater the dilute phosphatic clays generated in the production of phosphate rock. The research described includes early dewatering experiments, fundamental studies of clays and of flocculation, and minor dewatering techniques such as freeze-thaw methods, the ANDCO process, moving screens, sand wick, crust development, and overburden pumping. Some methods that are currently being evaluated are described. They include the Estech sand-clay mix process using the Enviro-Clear thickener, sand-clay sandwiching, dredge mix, dredge process, and the sand-spray process. Developing technology for dewatering phosphatic clays also is described, including the Bureau of Mines rotary trommel method and the Gardinier process.

Jan 1, 1984

By John Nagy

Data from experiments and literature on gas and dust explosions in closed vessels are presented to show the effects of the vessel size and shape; the initial pressure, temperature, and turbulence; and the fuel-air ratio and the strength of ignition source on pressure and rate of pressure rise. An attempt is made to correlate some of these parameters with an elementary mathematical model. Analyses of data on 17 vessels--spherical, cubical, cylindrical, and rectilinear in shape--ranging from 0,018 to 905 cubic feet in volume were made. Although the study was initiated to provide information primarily on dust-explosion phenomena, some data were obtained for gas explosions so that the factor of initial turbulence caused by the pneumatic blast used to disperse dust could be evaluated. The mathematical interpretation of the explosion phenomena was in general accord with the experimental data, and correlation was obtained for several factors affecting explosion development. Neither vessel size nor shape affected maximum pressure (when heat loss was neglected). The rate of pres-sure rise decreased as vessel size increased, and the rate was proportional to the ratio of the surface area of the vessel to its volume. Induced initial turbulence markedly increased the rate of pressure rise and slightly increased the maximum pressure. Changes in initial pressure produced proportional changes in maximum pressure and rate of pressure rise. Initial temperature and maximum pressure were inversely related, but initial temperature had little effect on the maximum rate of pressure rise. Comparative experiments showed no appreciable difference in explosion development of gas and dust fuels. The vessels and experimental work are described, and all data are given in tables. The mathematical model will facilitate extrapolation from laboratory to industrial conditions and will allow comparison of results obtained in different laboratories.

Jan 1, 1971

By V. E. Homme

This report describes methods of using sodium for reducing titanic chloride, developed as part of Bureau of Mines activities at Boulder City, Nev., to improve the extractive metallurgy of titanium. Theoretical indications pertaining to the major chemical reactions and possible side reactions of the process are compared with experimental observations. Low-temperature reduction equipment is described, in which titanic chloride was reduced with sodium at temperatures between 97.5° C., the melting point of sodium, and 200° C. Techniques employed in making reductions in ball-mill and high-surface sodium reactors are given.

Jan 1, 1958

By R. F. Tenney

No detailed information has been published heretofore on the performance of small industrial-type anthracite stokers in building-heating service, apparently because of the difficulty of comparing the performance of one unit with that of another over an entire season's operation. Studies of competitive heating fuels have been similarly handicapped, and attempts to compare fuels are seldom technically sound in this investigation, the performance of a 60-in. Losch4 stoker burning rice-size anthracite in a standard commercial boiler was observed during a 4-month winter-spring season. It was used to heat two buildings at the Bureau of Mines' Anthracite Research Center at Schuylkill Haven, Pa., with the customary type of automatic pressure-range control. Attendance was limited to inspecting, fuel weighing, data recording, and ash removal. Results were computed daily and grouped by weekly periods to minimize daily irregularities. The same stoker-boiler unit had already been tested in a series of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) test code runs, with the stoker running continuously and with other conditions well stabilized A comparison of results from the code test and the building-heating tests provided information not available in the past for a single stoker unit, assisted in analyzing heat losses not computable in a cyclic operation, and established a basis for evaluating stoker performance in heating service.

Jan 1, 1963

By W. S. Anderson

The use of flexible liners for support of underground openings has been investigated by the Bureau of Mines. This report presents installation procedures and instrumentation results of a full-scale flexible liner field installation in the Burgin mine. The flexible liner is a part of the mine support system and has provided maintenance-free support for 22 months

Jan 1, 1975

By Charles Prasky

This report describes bench-scale studies and pilot-plant development of the Bureau of Mines process for roasting iron ores with a ferrous scrap reductant, such as discarded automobile hulks, to yield artificial magnetite. Quality magnetic concentrates containing about 66 percent iron and 6 percent silica with iron recoveries of over 90 percent were obtained after roasting fine-grained oxidized or nonmagnetic taconite with unburned, sheared automobile hulks in a rotary kiln. The relatively complete oxidation of the lighter gage metal in the automobile during roasting resulted in a metallic byproduct consisting of the unconsumed heavier gage metal scrap. This residual or tailored scrap is potentially useful as heavy melting stock and has more value than the original automobile hulk.

Jan 1, 1970

By C. M. McCulloch

Examination of several coalbeds in Walker County, Ala., Cambria, Greene, and Fayette Counties, Pa., and Raleigh and Wyoming Counties, W. Va., indicates that cleat orientations are similar throughout a vertical sequence of strata. Studies of cleat orientation were carried out in underground mines that are operating in separate coalbeds vertically above one another. The data show that over a vertical separation of 100 to 400 feet, the average difference in coal cleat orientation between mines is 04° for the face and 08° for the butt cleat. Variations of coal cleat direction between coalbeds examined in strip-mined areas show similar values. Cleat orientations measured at outcrops agree well with the directions measured underground, suggesting that the amount of vertical separation between coalbeds has little effect on the resulting differences in cleat directions. The largest variation of cleat directions between adjacent coalbeds occurs where a large horizontal distance separates two sample locations. Cleat orientations for deeper coalbeds are most reliable where the data are taken from directly above.

Jan 1, 1976

By Robert D. Schmidt

This Bureau of Mines report describes the development and application of a computer model for simulating the hydrological activity associated with in situ leaching. The model is intended to provide uranium resource developers with a description of the flow behavior of leachants and ground water during the development, production, and restoration phases of a leaching operation involving an arbitrary pattern of injection and recovery wells. Different aquifer environments are modeled, using a closed-form solution to the partial differential equation that describes three-dimensional changes in piezometric head as a result of pumping from leachant injection and recovery wells. The computer program can model a maximum of, 50 arbitarily located wells. Numerical techniques involving difference quotients and Taylor expansions about time points are used to derive time, velocity, areal sweep, and fluid volume parameters associated with leaching hydraulics. These parameters are output by the program in graphic and tabular formats. Other numeric methods insure that the program running time is minimized without significantly affect-ing the accuracy of results.

Jan 1, 1980

By Noel N. Moebs

Coal mine roof failure is categorized according to character, trend, or pattern of occurrence. Two principal categories of failure are proposed--geology related and stress related. Geology-related failure includes both lithology and structure. Each of several subcategories reflects the probable cause of failure and thereby provides a basis for the selection of appropriate techniques for reducing the incidence of failure. These control techniques, depending on local conditions, may include supplementary support, destressing, reduction of mine air humidity, or a change in the customary support methods.

Jan 1, 1986

Create two air splits along the longwall face to isolate the shearer-generated dust to the immediate face area, maintaining a cleaner split of air in the workers' walkway.

Jan 1, 1994

By McHenry Mosier

The Bell mine operated by the Warner Co. at Bellefonte, Pa., has an annual production of about 600,000 short tons of high-grade limestone. Since 1924, shrinkage stoping has been the mining method. Horizontal, long-hole diamond-drilling for production in stopes was started with one machine in July 1946. It is now standard practice. The burden on the holes is 10 feet. Diamond bits are noncoring EX-size in both concave and pilot types. The two types have little difference in drilling speed at the Bell mine. The diamond drills are mounted on 3-inch single-screw columns. Diamond drilling shows a marked increase in efficiency at the Bell mine, compared to percussion drilling, with respect to tons broken per drill shift, tons broken per foot of hole, and tons broken per pound of explosive. The advantages of diamond-drilling blast-holes also include (a) improved safety, greater footage per drill shift, (c) better frag- mentation of the broken, stone, and (d) reduction in amount of barring down required in stopes because the working places are limited to slots which have a relatively small area.

Feb 1, 1948

By George J. Conroy

This Bureau of Mines publication describes several fault locators and methods, including time domain reflectometers, a frequency domain reflectometer, tone generators, an infrared method, the Murray loop method, and high-voltage "click" methods. The Bureau of Mines has been conducting research into these methods for several years, to improve mine safety and facilitate production through rapid, safe location of trailing-cable faults. The problems encountered in practical applications are discussed, and schematic diagrams of several instruments fabricated by the Bureau are presented. Since no present single method of locating trailing-cable faults is universally applicable, a kit composed of several of the more promising fault locators is advisable.

Jan 1, 1978

By Robert C. Gabler

The extraction of metals from coal ash was investigated by the Bureau of Mines in an effort to produce a more environmentally acceptable waste and offset waste disposal costs with recovered metal values. The research was conducted in two steps: determination of the parameters that affect extraction of metals from coal ash and development of extraction-recovery procedures. Data obtained indicate that the major parameter affecting the extraction of metals from coal ash is the calcium content of the ash. Other parameters such as furnace type and operating temperature had much smaller effects on metal extraction. Two procedures were studied for metal extraction: an acid leach procedure for high-calcium ashes and a lime sinter-acid leach procedure for low-calcium ashes. An alumina product was recovered that, with sufficient washing, meets Hall cell specifications. The leach residues pass the EPA EP Toxicity Test and are thus nonhazardous wastes available for a variety of uses.

Jan 1, 1983

By James E. Hill

The Bureau of Mines has been carrying on an extensive diamond- drilling program during the past 7 years on deposits of strategic and critical minerals . Often the project reports and the drill-hole logs describe the findings only in terms of the mineral being sought at the time . Then , too , results may not always be interpreted alike by several mining engineers , and the cores therefore provide a permanent tangible record to complement the project reports . The cores from projects in the eastern divisions are being stored at the Mount Weather Testing Adit . Core from a representative hole ( or skeletonized sections from several holes , if these are more representative ) is selected at each project and shipped to Mount Weather for permanent storage . At the Testing Adit an underground room was prepared and storage racks were installed . Wooden core trays designed to accommodate cores of various sizes were purchased .

Apr 1, 1947

By R. Unger, L. Mallett

The use of virtual reality (VR) technologies to train miners is an evolving area in research and development. In July 2006, representatives of 14 international organizations met to discuss current VR-related efforts and explore ways to employ VR in the future. This paper gives an overview of the various approaches presented at the meeting and discusses directions for future implementation. An example of a training package that teaches mine map-reading skills is presented. The meeting was the first step to building collaborations for furthering VR applications for mining. Planning has begun for a 2008 meeting open to broader participation. Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

By D. J. Parker, D. Harrington, L. H. Harrison

The necessity for protection against the hazards of lightning manifests itself from time to time in the mining industry by reason of loss of life, damage to electrical equipment, fires in surface structures at mines, and accidents in the handling and use of explosives. This paper is intended to assemble, correlate, and present some of the salient. points embodied in the available literature on the subject and at the same time give some factual data concerning instances of such loss of, life and damage to property, with special application to the mining industry The annual loss of life and destruction of property by lightning is considerable; the former may be prevented to a limited extent, though use of common sense as to exposure is required and not always followed; the latter can be prevented to a considerable degree. The manufacturers of electrical equipment,, through improved types of lightning arresters,, have done much toward the protection of electrical equipment, with consequent safeguarding of life and of property. Education based on unfortunate experiences has gone far to discourage the handling of explosives and blasting accessories during thunder storms, especially in open pits and quarries, and to a much smaller extent in underground workings. The lowly lightning rod plays an important role in the protection of certain types of buildings (especially isolated buildings), stacks, monuments, and other structures. LIGHTNING PHENOMENA In 1751, Franklin proved that lightning was simply a visible display of electricity - an extended spark; and until a generation ago little had been added to his exposition, to define the various phases of the phenomenon. Matters pertaining to lightning are discussed in the following references: