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By G. G. Morgis, J. J. Forbes

"INTRODUCTION The greatly diversified and increased uses of beryllium and its con& pounds in recent years have focused attention on the health hazards incident thereto. The Bureau of Mines has a fundamental interest in safety and the elimination or reduction of health hazards in the mineral and allied industries, and it recognizes that serious hazards are inherent in the production and use of beryllium and its compounds. This circular presents a review of the literature pertaining to such health hazards but does not describe original research by Bureau personnel. Most of the bibliography has boon either quoted in part or abstracted in an effort to present information in a comprehensive and readable form.In reviewing the literature, differences of opinions wore recognized in the writings of the respective authors, but no attempt was made to evaluate such differences. This presentation was devoted strictly to reporting without editorial comment.SUMMARYAlthough beryllium was known to industry for about 150 years, its toxicity did not present any serious problems in the United States until the advent of World War II, when the increased use of this element and its compounds brought to light several toxicologic reactions occurring primarily in the lungs and skin of workers handling it. The pulmonary effects, characterized as acute pnoumonitis and chronic pulmonary granulomatosis in beryllium workers, are far more serious than the dermatological manifestations.The addition of beryllium to the list of toxic industrial metals has boon so recent that there is still some confusion in the clinical picture. Data on magnitudes of exposure likely to be responsible for the production of disease are not yet adequate. There appears to be no relation between the severity of exposure and the development of cases some of those having had severe exposure have not developed a reaction, whereas those having a slight exposure in some instances have developed a response."

Jul 1, 1950

"""Hazard"" is the general expression used by safety engineers to denote risk, or the danger to property or human beings from the contingencies peculiar to different industries. Where a business, family, or individual is subjected to possible financial loss from any particular hazard, it is customary and is considered good practice to insure for reimbursement of possible loss. Accordingly, we take out insurance for earthquakes, for fire, for accidents, etc., and are charged a different premium for each. The premium rate is based on our relative exposure to the hazard in comparison to the total loss to our particular class of business in our geographical location over a given period.Insurance, then, must be considered as the experience of a group rather than of an individual, and any individual may be fortunate or unfortunate over stated periods. Through the law of averages, the probability of loss because of exposure to hazard is becoming more accurately measured as experience is accumulated and data are analyzed.Lion human life came to have a financial value in the eyes of the law, and employers were held liable for losses through accidents to employees while on duty, insurance companies began to underwrite the accident risks of the different employers and divided them into classes based on the amount of risk involved. Premiums for compensation insurance are based on relative exposure, which is measured by pay roll. The premium is rated in proportion to the severity of losses established by statistical studies.' It soon became evident that the accident experience of employers in the some industry varied widely; that is, there were good and bad risked in the same line of business. This resulted in ""experience rating"" of premiums, meaning thereby that an employer with experience in accident cost was premium rated in proportion to his losses over a stated period (usually three or more years)."

Feb 1, 1926

By J. C. Edwards

The Bureau of Mines developed a mathematical model that decribes the interaction of an automated breathing and metabolic simulator, or lung, with a self-contained· self-rescuer that is supplied compressed oxygen. The model can be used to predict the gas partial volumes of 0z, Nz, and COz in the lung and in the self-rescuer breathing bag for a prescribed metabolic state that characterizes the lung. Nonlinear rate equations are used to describe the temporal evolution of the gas partial volumes. A numerical procedure was established with a FORTRAN computer program to solve these equations, which correspond to a given metabolic state. Examples are presented of applications of the model to predict bag volume and bag oxygen concentration changes with time when the bag is controlled by an automated breathing simulator. Under certain restrictive conditions, the model equations can also be used to analytically pre-dict the time required for the bag to reach a maximum or minimum volume. The model equation in this latter case was extended to transi-tions between metabolic states, with transitions described as exponential growth or decay processes.

Jan 1, 1985

Improve surface mine haul-age truck safety and efficiency by providing a means for sensing the weight and distribution of the truck's load. Approach The safety hazards and the economic implications of overloading mine-haulage trucks were analyzed to determine the net effect of that practice on mine operations. The analysis indicated that: Ten to 25 pct overloading is typical; Higher haulage, tire, and maintenance costs occur due to overloading (a 20 pct overload was estimated to increase operating costs 7 pct per ton); Ten to 15 pct of haulage? truck injuries and fatalities are attributable to overload conditions, at a cost over one million dollars per year to the mining industry. Vehicle-weighing technology that conformed to the performance specification for an off-highway haulage truck overload detection system was selected for in-mine testing. How It Works Normally, volumetric estimates are made during the loading sequence which do not account for the varying ore density. Hence, the actual weight of a load is never precisely known. By providing a precise measurement, an overload detection system will not only indicate vehicle overloading, but will also show under-utilization of the truck. One system tested by the Bureau of Mines was the ?Load Analyzer" manufactured by Pactronics Corporation in California. This system consists of a meter-type analog readout for the cab console and three "Electrosensors" (linear variable differential transformers) attached to the main frame. Using conventional welding and brazing techniques, two sensors are attached between the front members of the engine sub-frame and the top of the left and right trailing arms (one sensor per arm). The same techniques are used to attach the third sensor to the rear centerline of the truck. between the main frame cross member and the A-frame. The readout unit on the cab console indicates by color-coding whether each sensor loading is under (green), at (yellow), or over (red) the pre-set rated load. The three-sensor configuration with in-dependent readouts also detects uneven distribution of the load.

Jan 1, 1984

By John Nagy

The Bureau of Mines examined explosion development in a closed spherical vessel, mathematically correlating flame travel, pressure, and time with parameters defining the reaction. The model assumes that burnt and unburnt zones are separated by a thin, radially moving flame front. Isothermal and adiabatic systems are considered. Correlation with gas and dust explosion data is better for the adiabatic system, but the isothermal development is simpler and in reasonably good agreement. Interpretation of the explosion phenomena is facilitated by expressing the rate of mole change in the flame front in terms of elementary parameters. This expression is developed by examining the components of spatial-flame velocity.

Jan 1, 1969

By W. W. Adams

luring the past two years the Bureau of ?,lines has been receiving from 100 to 150 coal mines in various States a report of each accident causing death, permanent total disability, permanent partial disability, or temporary disability lasting beyond the remainder of the day or shift on which the accident occurred. For each 100 accidents in these groups, there are perhaps from 35 to 45 accidents that do not disable the employee beyond the remainder of the day, and of these fraction-of-a-day accidents the Bureau has compiled no statistics. Information revealed by the reports is to the effect that falls of roof and coal in bituminous coal mines are responsible for 28 per cent of the temporary injuries to underground workers and 33 per cent of the days lost from all temporary injuries underground; they also indicate that falls caused 59 per cent of the deaths from all causes underground. Figures compiled by R. N. Hosler, of the Pennsylvania. Mine Rating Bureau, and covering accidents in bituminous; minis in that State, chow that 61 per cent of the deaths underground during the years 1917-1921 wore due to falls. Neither of these percentage figures includes deaths in major explosions; figures for all bituminous mines in the United States during the five years 1920-1024, inclusive of deaths in major explosions, show that 52 per cent of the deaths underground and in shafts were due to falls of roof and coal.

Jan 1, 1925

By Harry Dobroski, Larry G. Stolarczyk

Medium-frequency (MF) techniques have been successfully .[pplied] to the problem of radio voice communications in both coal and metal and nonmental mines. Long range is achieved by taking advantage of existing mine conductors that carry and propagate the signal over vast areas. It is very likely that in the near future such systems will become the referred method for general mine communications. MF techniques can also be applied to the areas of in-mine control and monitoring. Preliminary work in this area is described. In a western mine, locomotives are being operated under MF remote control in a loading operation. In several eastern mines, MF has been evaluated as a method for monitoring the status of devices in remote areas of the mines. All control and monitor information uses existing mine conductors.

By E. A. Johnson

As part of its effort to reduce the environmental impact associated with mining and metallurgical operations, the Bureau of Mines used a modified form of the Environmental Protection Agency's Extraction Procedure toxicity test on copper reverberatory slags that contained low, medium, and high levels of the impurity elements As, Pb, Sb, Bi, and Zn. All tests resulted in extracts that did not exceed those limits published in the May 19, 1980, Federal Register; there-fore, these solid wastes were designated as nonhazardous for most landfill disposal situations. However, arsenic and lead levels disturbingly close to the allowable limits--and even higher levels of copper and zinc, for which there are no established limits--leached from the high-impurity-element granulated slags. These slags should be handled in such a way so as to minimize the possibility of water contamination. One baghouse dust was tested according to the EPA procedure and found to exceed the extract limits by a factor of 10. This solid waste may be considered hazardous.

Jan 1, 1982

By K. K. Kershner

Important contributions can be made to conservation of natural resources by recovering mineral values from primary and secondary metallurgical slimes and flue dusts. This applies particularly to ultrafine mineral particles that escape recovery by conventional mineral dressing. In the interest of economy and conservation the Bureau of Mines is investigating fundamental properties of ultrafine mineral values in slimes as a means of developing new or improved methods of mineral recovery. The work described in this progress report was carried on in the Bureau's laboratories at Rolla, Mo., from 1951 to 1953. The mineral material used as a subject for study was tin-ore slimes. DESCRIPTION OF TIN SLIMES The tin slimes consist principally of quartz, with appreciable quantities of tourmaline and sericite mica and small amounts of cassiterite, pyrite, hematite, and arsenopyrite. The tin content is approximately 0.5 percent.

Jan 1, 1954

By J. P. Conway

The yielding-rock-bolt concept, as developed in South Africa, consists of a smooth-bore die or collar fitted to a standard rock bolt. Laboratory testing at the Bureau of Mines Spokane Mining Research Center under slow and fast strain rates showed that extrusion loads can be controlled by varying the configuration of the die bore and that theoretical analysis (using basically Sachs' theory of wire drawing) predicts extrusion loads of the different die-bore configurations. A derived equation, based on this research, can be used for designed die-thread combinations for any desired extrusion load. Dynamic loading resulted in slightly higher loads (15 percent) than static loading. The strain hardening effect, which increases yield and ultimate strength, was partly offset by adiabatic heating of the threads, which decreases strength.

Jan 1, 1975

Now you know why there is concern about mine illumination. You have some idea about how the human eye works and about the problems of glare, peripheral vision, and accommodation. And you know that lighting in a mine presents special problems because of the dark surroundings and low reflectance. This chapter describes what can be done to improve conditions. This chapter begins with a short discussion about Federal Standards on mine lighting -- what they are and what is being done to carry them out. The chapter then describes different types of lamps that can be used for mine lighting, and discusses their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, the chapter lists some things that you can do personally to improve lighting, or can point out to others so that improvements can be made. The Federal Government is doing its part to improve mine lighting by establishing regulations. Lamp manufacturers are constantly studying new lamps to provide better equipment. And your company will do its part to comply with regulations. Better lights may not be here yet, but they will be soon. But in the end, you are the one who will be using the lights, and you are in the best position to see the improvements. You are also in the best position to see and tell others where further improve¬ments can be made.

Jan 1, 1976

By J. E. Pahlman

One of the goals of the Bureau of Mines is to develop metallurgical pro-cesses that conserve energy and/or that take advantage of abundant domestic energy sources. Western lignites and subbituminous coals can be used for firing pellet induration and metallization furnaces. However, the refractory linings of these furnaces must be able to withstand attack from corrosive alkali metal oxides present in the ash of many of the low-rank fossil fuels. The Bureau of Mines conducted dynamic and static slag tests on high-alumina and alumina-silica refractories to determine their resistance to lignite ash slags. The investigations showed that increased alkali content in the lignite ash caused increased corrosion and erosion of the tested refractories. The degree of corrosion decreased with increasing alumina content, with the 99-percent-alumina refractories having the highest resistance. In general, the matrix phase was attacked preferentially to the alumina grains. Also, porosity reduction and tar impregnation enhanced the corrosion and erosion resistance. The 90-to 99-percent-alumina refractories are recommended for use as furnace linings in alkali slag environments.

Jan 1, 1979

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Jan 1, 2011

By E. D. Gardner

An explosion occurred in a high-pressure compressed-air line in October, 1930, at an Arizona copper mine. The explosion was unusual, and nothing had teor. noted by the plant operators to indicate the possibility of such an occurrence. It is necessar The air is The mining company uses compressed-air locomotives to haul about 4,500 tons of ore per day from the stopos to the pockets at two hoisting shafts. The ore cars hold five tons each, and are pulled in trains of 30 cars. to charge the locomotive with compressed air at both ends of the trip. conveyed from the compressors at the surface to the distributing points unier roun in special high-pressure four inch steel pipe that was tested to withstand 2500 pounds per square inch before being installed. The air is delivered to the loco- motives at a pressure of 1000 pounds per square inch. There are no receivers in the system. The air for running the locomotives is compressed by one three-stage and two four-stage compressors which have capacities of 600 and 300 cubic feet per minute, respectively. These machines are operated by electric power, and are in an end of the main compressor building in which air is compressed to supply the air drills in the mine. Whenever the demand decreases, as at the noon hour, one or more of the Compressors are shut down. On this particular occasion, at the end of the noon hour, one of the operators was approaching the high-pressure compressors to start the two smaller machines that were not running, when the explosion took place under the floor a few fost ahead of him. The man was mocked down and received some superficial cuts and bruises, but was not seriously injured. The floor was torn , the side of the building blown out, and holes imo cited in the roof some twenty feet above. The explosion was immediately followed by a fire which was quickly put out by the plant operators with hand fire extinguishers. At the time of the explosion the 600 cubic foot compressor was running alone, and the pressure in the system at the machine registered 1040 pounds por square inch. On examination it was found that two 6-fout sections of pipe, about tan feet apart, were completely ruptured into twisted fragments; the rest of the pipe line, apparently, was not injured. The destroyed sections were in that part of the pipe near the large compressor and above the connection from the two smaller machines. It is not definitely mom what caused the explosion. Explosions in other compressed-air systems have taken place, and, although of rare occurrence, have caused loss of life. Such explosions are not confined to high-pressure installations and several have occurred at plants compressing air te one hundred pounds per square inch, or less. plosions of this nature are not to be confused with the rupturing of compressor cylinders from excessive air pressure caused by the discharge valve being closed.

Feb 1, 1921

By Donald W. Fausett

This Bureau of Mines publication presents a system of thermal decompositions providing an adequate description of the mechanism of oil shale pyrolysis. Specific rate constants for systems of thermal decompositions studied are estimated via a least-squares procedure. The estimates thus obtained provide a mathematical model of the corresponding thermal decomposition system. A model that generates a good fit to published Bureau of Mines experimental data, in comparison with other models studied, is based on a thermal decomposition system consisting of two first-order reactions and three second-order reactions. Values computed for the specific rate constants corresponding to this system are shown to exhibit a temperature dependence that is in good agreement with the Arrhenius equation.

Jan 1, 1974

By W. A. Calhoun

A method for concentration of the nickel-cobalt-bearing mineral, siegenite, from a table middling has been developed by the Bureau of Mines at Rolla, Mo. The table middling is composed of a complex series of sulfide minerals, occurring in mill operations in the southeast Missouri "lead belt." In these operations the siegenite is lost as a separate concentrate, being diverted to other products. The procedure also includes recovering commercial-grade concentrates of copper and lead. A low-grade zinc concentrate, a potential coproduct, was also made.

Jan 1, 1962

By S. H. Katz

Tar and suspended matters are removed from manufactured gas used for domestic and industrial purpose.

Jul 1, 1922

By L. C. IlsLey, E. J. Gleim

It is the firm belief of the Bureau's engineers that the introduction of electrical mining machines has done much to increase safety in mining as a whole . There can be no doubt but that the substitution of machine mining together with permissible powder for the method of " shooting from the solid " has been the means of saving the lives of many shot- firers . Machine mining also leaves the roof in a better condition as lighter charges of powder are required to bring down the coal . Thus the danger from falls of roof are lessened . It is recognized that every effort should be made to prevent all accidents due to the use of electrical machinery but it is felt that any action tending to limit the use of such machinery would be a backward rather than a forward step in the safety measures laid out to decrease the hazards in coal mining .

May 1, 1920

By Launa G. Mallett, Dana Reinke, Charles Vaught, Michael J. Brnich

As mines become safer and major disasters fewer, the number of experienced emergency responders is decreasing. This decrease will create a gap in response expertise which could have serious ramifications during future mine disasters. While working toward safety goals which may make emergency response obsolete, it would be reckless not to acknowledge that the potential for disaster still exists and that the protection of miners in such circumstances must remain a priority. The Mine Emergency Response Interactive Training Simulation (MERITS) is a computerized mine emergency simulation that meets a variety of needs. It allows personnel in leadership positions to test their knowledge and skill. Groups of individuals composed of representatives from mining companies, labor, and government agencies can practice working together during the simulated mine emergency much in the same way an actual emergency would require. An individual could also run the program to enhance his or her response skills. With this training tool, responders will be able to learn from their mistakes before facing situations with potentially catastrophic consequences. This paper discusses MERITS and its use in providing command center training.

By Lloyd A. Morley, Robert Stefanko

This report was prepared by The Pennsylvania State University, College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, ' Department of Mineral Engineering, University Park, Pennsylvania, under USBM Grant No. GO-133077. The grant was initiated under the Coal Mine Health and Safety Research Program. It was administered under the technical direction of the Pittsburgh Mining and Safety Research Center with Mr. G. J. Conroy acting as the technical project officer. Mr. J. A. Herickes was the grant administrator for the Bureau of Mines. This report is a summary of the work recently completed as part of this grant during the period 19 June, 1973 to 17 June, 1975. This report was submitted by the authors on 18 July, 1974. This technical report has been reviewed and approved.

Jan 1, 1974