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By F. J. Sotillo

Mining in Peru is mainly concentrated on metallic and polymetallic ores of gold, copper, lead, zinc, silver, tin, iron, etc. However, little has been done to develop extensive and rich non-metallic or Industrial Minerals deposits with the exception of some silica and phosphate deposits. This paper presents the characterization and metallurgical studies for the development of a feldspar deposit. These studies showed that the special characteristics of the ore, such as high porosity, high Al2O3 content, low clays content, and sized material allowed us to obtain commercial products applying relatively simple and low cost concentrating unit operations. The characterization studies showed that the feldspar products contained no quartz and about 90% of albite (NaAlSi3O8). The 14x40-mesh size fraction product analyzed 5.91% Na2O, 22.56% Al2O3, 65.73% SiO2, 0.65% K2O, 6.50% CaO, and 0.40% Fe2O3; whereas, the 40x150-mesh size fraction product analyzed 6.22% Na2O, 24.30% Al2O3, 60.80% SiO2, 0.91% K2O, 7.06% CaO, and 0.54% Fe2O3. These products could be used for manufacturing glass, ceramics, refractory, and filters in different applications. In addition, Middlings, could be used as insulation material due to its porosity (bulk density of 0.828 Kg/dm3), analyzing 4.46% Na2O, 15.7% Al2O3, 67.2% SiO2, 2.57% K2O, 3.94% CaO, and 4.24% Fe2O3. The material showed a sphericity of 0.77, a roundness of 0.68, and acid solubility of 13.3025% on only washed and 2.72% effective for clean material suitable for use in these applications. No selective accumulation of the valuable mineral was observed at any specific size fraction. However, iron and titanium bearing impurities trended to concentrate in fine fractions (minus 70 mesh -212 µm-). Metallurgical studies demonstrated that this feldspar ore required sizing at 14x40 mesh and 40x150 mesh to render commercial products. In the case of the 14x40-mesh size fraction, the process involved magnetic separation, gravity separation, and flotation for feldspar (direct flotation) using a blend of primary and condensate amines. However, the reverse flotation for mica-biotite and iron bearing minerals was also possible using petroleum sulfonate. The metallurgical process for the 40x150-mesh size fraction required magnetic separation and reverse flotation of iron and titanium bearing minerals, the feldspar being reported in the sink material. Commercial products from this feldspar deposit for glass, ceramics, refractory, and filtration; and for the manufacturing of insulation material were obtained.

Feb 23, 2014

By Dean S. Rogers

The conventional role of exploration, development and grade control is examined in this paper within the context of the many and varied types of gold occurrences which are found at the Dome Nine. The account endeavours to trace the development of the total ore evaluation process, from diamond drilling through the exploration and drifting stage, to the stope development and planning phase of the operation, with an emphasis on sampling techniques and assaying procedure. The concept of ore reserve calculations is developed and the practice of grade control is described. In summary, the role of the geological, the engineering and the mining department is presented in relation to the contribution each has to make in the evaluation and exploitation of ore from one of the world's classic Archean gold deposits.

Jan 1, 1984

By A. Vilinska

The adhesion of Leptospirillum ferrooxidans bacterial cells onto the sulfide minerals pyrite and chalcopyrite was evaluated using two different physical-chemical approaches; thermodynamic and extended DLVO theory. For the parameters incorporated into calculations, the zeta potentials and contact angles of powdered solids and bacterial cells were acquired experimentally. The Hamaker constants essential for Lifshitz-van der Waals inter-action calculations were calculated following two different methods: macroscopic and microscopic. Adsorption tests were carried out at physiologic conditions to estimate the amount of cells adsorbed onto a mineral surface and the extent of alteration of that mineral surface in biobeneficiation. The free energy of adhesion was found to be negative for both minerals, indicating that the adhesion is energetically favored and preferred. The interaction energy diagrams of the total interacting force was also negative for the cases where the particles were charged oppositely; in the remaining cases, the total force was attractive after overcoming an energetic barrier caused by the repulsive electrostatic forces. Under the conditions of the adsorption test, the experimental results are in agreement with the theoretical; this suggests that the physical-chemical forces are crucial for bacterial adhesion.

Jan 1, 2011

By Winfield G. Wright, Philip L. Verplanck, Philip L. Hageman, Douglas B. Yager, Dana J. Bove, M. Alisa Mast

Geological, hydrological, and geochemical information synthesized in a Geographical Information System (GIS) for water and rock surrounding South and Middle Forks of Mineral Creek, northwest of Silverton Colorado, was analyzed to distinguish between the natural and the mining-related sources of metals to dace waters in the watershed An important natural source of metals to surface water emanates from a porphyry molybdenum deposit south and upslope from the Middle Fork of Mineral Creek. Interaction of surface and ground water with fractured, altered rocks and permeable, Quatemay-age surficial deposits produces downstream water quality that does not meet current State of Colorado water quality standards for metals and pH. GIS site characterization and three-dimensional modeling distinguish surficial deposits as volumetrically substantial, significant sources of naturally occurring metals that strongly influence water quality and complicate ongoing mine-site mitigation efforts. Our findings indicate that regional hydrologic and geologic information needs to be evaluated before realistic water quality guidelines are established and mitigation recommendations are confidently implemented.

Jan 1, 2000

By R. Bryce, T. J. Doughty, K. Stoll

Sulfate-impacted mine waters are under regulatory scrutiny to reduce total dissolved solids (TDS). There are several options to reduce TDS. One option is transforming the soluble sulfate into insoluble ettringite. The Water Company LLC (TWC) patented a process for sulfate removal through ettringite formation by reacting directly with metallic aluminum. Freeport-McMoRan (FMI) and TWC have collaborated to design, build and operate a 10-gallon-per-minute (gpm) ettringite pilot plant to establish reagent consumption, plant availability and full-scale design criteria. Using metallic aluminum as the primary aluminum source for ettringite precipitation eliminates the addition of other ions, resulting in significant demineralization. The pilot plant achieved greater than 98% water recovery, greater than 90% reagent efficiencies and maintained reactor sulfate levels below 250ppm. BACKGROUND Ettringite is a hydrated calcium, aluminum, sulfate mineral with the following formula: Sulfate-impacted mine waters are under regulatory scrutiny to reduce total dissolved solids (TDS). There are several options to reduce TDS. One option is transforming the soluble sulfate into insoluble ettringite. The Water Company LLC (TWC) patented a process for sulfate removal through ettringite formation by reacting directly with metallic aluminum. Freeport-McMoRan (FMI) and TWC have collaborated to design, build and operate a 10-gallon-per-minute (gpm) ettringite pilot plant to establish reagent consumption, plant availability and full-scale design criteria. Using metallic aluminum as the primary aluminum source for ettringite precipitation eliminates the addition of other ions, resulting in significant demineralization. The pilot plant achieved greater than 98% water recovery, greater than 90% reagent efficiencies and maintained reactor sulfate levels below 250ppm. BACKGROUND Ettringite is a hydrated calcium, aluminum, sulfate mineral with the following formula: Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12•26H2O Ettringite readily precipitates in high pH water and by doing so, removes sulfate from impacted waters. The SAVMIN process, piloted in South Africa, is one method to produce ettringite. In this process, aluminum hydroxide is the aluminum source. The Cost Effective Sulfate Removal (CESR) process is similar to SAVMIN, but uses a proprietary aluminum source instead of aluminum hydroxide. Outotec and Veolia also have their own versions of the process using their specialized process equipment. TWC patented a version of ettringite precipitation using metallic aluminum as the aluminum source for ettringite formation. The benefit of using aluminum metal is that no additional ions are added to the process. At high pH, the raw aluminum corrodes in water causing hydrogen gas generation as the water is chemically reduced. This reaction is shown below:

Jan 1, 2019

By CADEN VITTI, Barbara J. Arnold

Mine tailings, the byproduct of mining and mineral processing, are increasingly mass produced as a result of increased demand for metals and minerals as well as the advancement in technology that allows for the exploitation of lower-grade ores. Lower grades can increase the volume of tailings that may contain new gangue minerals that should be evaluated for the presence of critical minerals and other valuable metals. The practice of reprocessing, while relatively new, is crucial to reducing environmental damages, obtaining valuable critical minerals from waste, and contributing to more sustainable repurposing and disposal methods. With the increase in tailings dam failures in recent years, there is a large motivating factor in remining and removing the potential hazard to benefit the safety of potentially impacted communities. In analyzing the perspectives of various domestic and international studies, this literature review will determine the feasibility of reprocessing and reutilizing mine tailings waste for a more sustainable future while exploring current practices that have benefitted ecosystems and communities.

Jan 1, 2022

By Franziska Wolf, Rainer Ellmies, Helmut Mischo

"Mining is an important part of the economy of Namibia. In 2016, 11.1 percent of the GDP was the result of mining activities with 22 active mines (The Chamber of Mines of Namibia, 2016). Only one of them consists of an underground mining operation.The global annual production of fluorspar is approximately 5.4 to 6.3 Mt (6 to 7 million st) (U.S. Geological Survey National Minerals Information Center, 2017). Okorusu has produced on average about 45 kt/a (50,000 stpy) in recent years (U.S. Geological Survey National Minerals Information Center, 2015).The Okorusu Mine is Namibia’s only fluorspar mine. Fluorspar was mined in an openpit mine with four individual pits (A-D) since 1980. In 2014, the mine closed due to the increased stripping ratio and beneficiation problems. The mine assets were bought by Gecko Namibia. Currently, Gecko uses parts of the processing plant for beneficiation of graphite from a neighboring mine. Figure 1 shows a panoramic view with the four pits and the mine village.The intent is to develop a concept for the further underground development of the mine. There are still about 6.3 Mt (7 million st) of measured resources left in the deposit, with an average grade of 27.5 percent CaF2. This study focuses on the underground mine design. The above-ground plant and facilities are considered as remaining unchanged.For solving the task to design the mine, a site visit for data collecting was conducted. Resource estimations were calculated based on existing drill data, and consequently, block models were created. The development of the mine design included the selection of the most suitable mining method, mining technology and mine organization. Moreover, some economic considerations are pointed out, followed by a profitability assessment."

Jan 2, 2018

By Jerry Dolph

In September 1855, 55-year-old Noah Spencer Kellogg and his $3 jackass named Bill discovered what was known at the time as a “blow out” of high-grade lead and silver ore. The deposit was located on the side of a North Idaho mountain high above the South Fork of the Coeur d’Alene River. The ore was later assayed at 41,141 g/t (1,200 oz/st) silver. Kellogg named his discovery the Bunker Hill Lode, after the June 17, 1775 Revolutionary War battle of Bunker Hill. A thriving pioneer settlement sprang into existence around the resulting mine’s workings and was eventually— and appropriately — named Kellogg. The peak rising hundreds of feet above the mine’s adit was named “Jack-ass Peak” after Noah Kellogg’s hairy companion.

Jan 1, 1996

By A. Bhargava, V. Nasri

Traditionally, secant piles have been utilized to provide temporary support during excavation for shafts and cut-and-cover tunnels. As an alternative, the secant piles can be included into the permanent structure, where they serve as the envelope sustaining the lateral loads and gravity of the permanent structure in addition to supporting the excavation during construction. This has several benets, such as shorter building times and lower excavation costs. Recent construction of an approach structure and an underground station as part of Montréal, Canada’s Réseau Express Métropolitain (REM), one of the biggest transit systems in North America, was completed with remarkable success using this. In this paper, a case study based on a project that employed secant piles as the permanent liner is presented. Techniques to guarantee a watertight construction with over a century of service life are described, along with a variety of structural and waterproong methods applied to create an economical design.

Jun 23, 2024

By K. K. Bhattacharyya

Vast deposits of lignite occur in the Gulf Coast states and northern plain states. Lignite resources are cited to be over 43 billion tons in the Gulf Coast states. An additional resource of 16 billion tons are reported in North Dakota (Jackson, Smith, 1981). All lignite in the U.S. is mined at present by the open pit method. Draglines and scrapers are primarily used to remove the overburden. Bucket-wheel excavators are also being considered for new mines in the planning stages. Lignite seams are mined using front-end loaders, shovels and trucks, or Easi-miners. The depositional environment of lignite is weak sedimentary soils and rock. Ground water is often encountered within the mining depth. Surface water resulting from heavy rainfall or snow melt contributes to the problems of mining. Mining depths of up to 60 m (200 ft) are under consideration. Draglines exert additional loads on the highwalls and spoil piles. The combination of any number of these factors may cause instability of the slopes. Bearing pressure, trafficability, and settlement can also be a problem for excavation and loading equipment.

Jan 1, 1982

By Ashraf A. M. A. Wali

Many of the economic resources of Egypt have been recognized and exploited for thousands of years (e.g. gold and copper). Most of these minerals, particularly those from hard-rock sited deposits, are found in complex form along with other components while those present in sedimentary sequences are largely in simple compounds or as native elements. Recognition of their characteristic settings (structure, basin development, environment of formation etc.) is the main clue in predicting and locating their presence. The main economic minerals exploited in Egypt today come from sedimentary sequences and include sodium and potassium chlorides, gypsum, sulfur, and sedimentary iron ores. Large amounts of low grade sedimentary phosphates are known but are not of economic value at today's prices. Recent intensive investigation in the north-eastern Sinai (EI Arish) and along the southern coasts of the Gulf of Suez has revealed new and extensive sulfur and chloride deposits, and considerable oil and gas are now being exploited from closely related sediments. Tin is the only mineral that is produced from hard-rock sources, and gold and copper deposits are present but not of high enough grade to be economically viable. However, a significant part of Egypt has not yet been studied in enough detail to close the door on future discoveries. Another point of considerable geological interest is the presence of diverse, modern evaporitic settings, from which we may draw the analogs for many of the older gypsum, anhydrite, chloride and sulfur de-posits. In fact these analogs are so well displayed that both the Sinai and Gulf of Suez-Red Sea evaporites (Middle and Upper Miocene) can be readily compared with these modern deposits.

Jan 1, 1990

By Chuang Sun, Feng Luo, Guo‑dong Li, Xue‑qing Li, Tuan He

The mining-induced failure of the coal seam floor is essential for water inrush. The mining disturbance to the floor, especially in the thick coal seam, is severe, and the water inrush risk is also higher than that in regular thick coal seam excavation. The superposition of many stresses, including in situ stress, mining-induced stress, and confined water pressure, must be considered in the prediction of the floor failure depth. This study adopted the elasticity analysis, FLAC3D numerical simulation, and on-site acoustic wave test comprehensively. The thick coal seam working face of the Zhong-Yu coal mine affected by confined water was selected as the engineering background to study the characteristics of the floor failure. Based on elastic foundation theory and the superposition principle, the mechanical model and the failure depth criterion of the floor were established, respectively. The distribution and evolution of mining-induced stress and the plastic zone in surrounding rock during the mining process are obtained by FLAC3D. In addition, the changes in the P-wave wave velocity in the floor before and after mining were compared and studied by the acoustic wave test method. The range of floor damage depth is determined on the basis of the above research.

Jun 8, 2022

By J. Y. Kim, R. W. Stanley, L. Rosato

Silver contained in zinc calcines undergoes several phase changes as it proceeds through the leaching circuit of a roast-leach-electrowin zinc plant. In this study, the flotation response of silver, from leach residues prepared under a variety of carefully controlled operating conditions in the pilot plant has been examined. Flotation of neutral leach residue is shown to be technically viable and to merit consideration for those plants without a high-acid leach circuit, but having significant silver values in the feed. Residue leach conditions must be kept slightly acidic to promote the formation of Ag2S, (AgCu) 2S and Ag2S rims on residual unroasted sphalerite, while simultaneously avoiding the hydrolysis of soluble iron, which depresses silver recovery and grade. Factors to be considered during integration of a flotation process into an electrolytic zinc plant are discussed.

Jan 1, 1992

By Tyler Lahti, Peter Borgacci, Mary Jane Ferraro, Prakash Nadesparan

Toronto Tunnel Partners (TTP), under contract to Metrolinx/IO, is constructing new twin rail tunnels under the Highway 401 & 409 interchange to accommodate additional tracks to support the GO Expansion program for future two-way, all-day service. The new tunnels are being constructed using the Sequential Excavation Method (SEM) and utilize a tunnel pre-support system consisting of a series of 800 mm diameter steel pipes to form a pipe canopy. The pre-support pipes were installed with an Auger Boring Machine (ABM) in four separate headings; one heading from each of the tunnel end portals, and two from a shaft in the middle of the highway. To facilitate the auger boring operation, a custom steel reaction frame was required to counteract the thrust from the ABM at the portals, and a temporary shaft structure was installed in a narrow median space of the highway. The installation of the pipe canopy had to overcome challenges including removal of obstructions, alignment issues, and controlling settlements to the highway surface. This paper discusses the purpose of the pipe canopy, design and installation of the temporary shaft and structures to support the auger boring operation, the experience of the contractor during the installation of the pipes, and brief overview of the experience tunneling below the pipes.

Jun 13, 2021

By Jian Liu

The dissolubility of a natural sphalerite (ZnS) in the entire pH range was theoretically calculated, and its practical dissolution in an aqueous solution at different pH values in an inert environment, together with its surface properties after dissolution, was fully investigated. The results of the investigation indicate that the total concentration of Zn (CZnT) decreases significantly with the increase of pH value, while the pH value is set below 8; however, it reverses when the pH value reaches 8. Such a tendency is similar to that of the theoretical calculations, although the experimental CZnT were much higher than those of the theoretical calculations. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the sphalerite surface after its dissolution under alkaline solution shows that a polysulfide (Sn 2-) surface layer with a binding energy (BE) value of 162.96-163.25 eV is present on the surface, and the percentage of Sn 2- increases significantly with an increase in pH value; the undissolved and dissolved sphalerites under the acidic solution have a negligible difference in S2p peaks. The surface S/Zn ratio of all dissolved sphalerites shows a marked Zn enrichment and S deficiency. An atomic force microscope (AFM) view of the sphalerite surface, after its dissolution under the alkaline solution at a pH of 12, shows that the surface is significantly different in morphology from that of the undissolved one.

May 1, 2012

By Roy A. Grancher

HAPPY BIRTHDAY Not only is 1971 the Centennial Year of the AIME, but it also marks the One Hundredth Anniversary of the United States Portland Cement Industry. On September 26th in 1871 David O. Saylor of Allentown, Pennsylvania, received his patent Numbered 119,413 for the manufacture of portland cement. "Cement" had been used in the United States before that. This was, however, natural cement - a direct product of rocks as found in nature, usually burned at low temperatures in open kilns. During the early 1800s this natural cement played an important role in such projects as the building of the Erie Canal. It was only after the Civil War that small amounts of high priced portland cement was imported from Europe. The successful use of this material in construction led to Saylor's experiments and subsequent patent for the manufacture of a scientifically controlled product in this country. These one hundred years have witnessed four major "ages" of cement . . . three of them occurring in the last quarter century since World War Two. The first age was the "Age of Development", a seventy-year period which saw the growth of cement and its concrete end uses as major construction materials. Next followed a period called the "Age of Demand" when, after the war, cement became in short supply relative to large building requirements. In effect a cement shortage existed. The decade of the Sixties proved to be the "Age of Reaction", with its courses of action coming in response to the problems that arose when the industry's expansion programs provided too much capacity. Today cement, and the concrete industries, find themselves entering the "Age of Reason". Overcapacity, low price, rising costs, and poor returns are several of the reasons behind that name, As these industries face the construction challenge of the Seventies, and beyond, the application of basic management principles (otherwise known

Jan 1, 1971

By Ulf B. Andersson, Christina Dahnér-Lindkvist, Bruno Figueiredo, Jessa Vatcher, Jonny Sjöberg, Joel Andersson

Hydraulic fracturing to precondition the rock mass in high seismic risk environments has great potential. Unfortunately, there are many unanswered questions about how to best implement a hydraulic fracturing program at individual mine sites, and even how to best use our engineering tools to evaluate these plans. To give the hydraulic fracturing field tests at LKAB’s Kiirunavaara Mine the best chance of success, fully-coupled, discontinuum numerical modelling Itasca’s 3DEC code was used together with statistical simulations of the fracture network. For modelling purposes, it was assumed that hydraulic fracturing successfully reduces seismic risk through 1) the creation of hydraulic fractures along a plane at each injection site, and 2) activation of existing discontinuities. A variety of scenarios for the mine were evaluated, which focused on site specific uncertainties (such as the spacing of the pre-existing discontinuities) and practical solutions (such as the hydraulic fracture spacing, selection of injection medium, and hydraulic fracture site location relative to production). The discrete fracture network (DFN) realizations were developed using available statistical data for discontinuities near where hydraulic fracturing was planned.

Apr 26, 2022

By Malcolm Wills

Hedges Gold Pty. Ltd. mines and processes a lateritic gold orebody approximately 120 km south east of Perth in the Darling plateau. The operation is approximately 26 km from the town of Boddington and 31 km from the town of Dwellingup. Hedges operates under The Western Australian Environmental Protection Act, Licence Number 3183. Presently, nine Limitations and Conditions are applicable to the tailings dam. These conditions apply to maximum discharge/disposal quantity permitted. Hedges mine is located in state Forest within the eastern, low rainfall section of the Darling Range and within the waler catchment area of the Murray River. Ore is carted by 120 tonne haulpacks to the plant. The plant and tailings dam is on private farm land some six kms from the mine.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. K. Snelgrove

At a time when water resource planning is proceeding on a continental scale, such as the proposed $100 billion North American Water and Power Alliance, which would redistribute water among three nations, including seven provinces of Canada, 35 of the United States, and three States of Mexico, the selection of a single river basin for study may seem to require an apologia. None is offered because of ( 1) the magnitude of the Indus , itself a part of the great Indo-Gangetic Plain drainage system, with Himalayan sources, upon which the thickly populated northern sub-continent of Indo-Pakistan depends for agriculture and hydroelectic power; (2) the extraordinary problems created by dismemberment of the world?s largest irrigation system through legal beheading of the Eastern Waters under the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960; and (3) the herculean effort to contain the twin encroachments of waterlogging and salinization in a basin which faces a shortage of fresh water. The British irrigation system of barrages and canals on the Indus was a venture admirable in conception. Unfortunately, it is now a legacy burdened with unwanted consequences, due to interference with the hydrological regimen, particularly the rise of water table occasioned by leakage.

Jan 1, 1967

By Osvaldo Bascur, Barun Gorain, Jaco Steyn

"The last few decades have seen some remarkable advancement in information technology, but recently various digital technologies have resulted in several synergies to deliver innovation in diverse applications. The mining industry has been relatively slow in adopting these technologies compared to the other industries, but this scenario is changing fast.Challenges. Mining companies globally are going through a series of challenges such as declining ore grades with complex metallurgy, increasing depth of ore bodies, high capital and operating costs, lower productivity, shortage of technical resources, significant pressure from stake-holders to deliver, along with growing environmental and corporate social responsibility issues. Improvement in profitability would need significant improvements in operational performance.Consequently, over the last few years, there has been a major focus among some mining companies to imbibe operational excellence. This has been only possible because of the replacement of a silos-based approach by an integrated view of the organization. Such an integrated view is now possible via the evolving digital technologies. Even so, such a transformation calls for a change in culture, which, for most organizations is not trivial. Attempts in the past to integrate functions, such as through mine-to-mill initiatives in the mining industry, have demonstrated significant benefits to many operations (McKee, 2013). Still, sustaining these benefits has clearly been a challenge due to manpower turnover and lack of proper systems and structures that integrate information between business functions within an operation and between operations and the corporate level.Opportunities. The advent of digital technology has opened up opportunities to integrate interdepartmental information for a unified understanding across an entire organization. The advances in instrumentation, equipment control systems, supervisory control systems (SCADA/ Historian) and industrial networks have helped in the direction of enterprise- wide integration. The availability of real time information across an enterprise has given rise to numerous possibilities to improve organization performance. As suggested by Seshan and Gorain (2016), some of the potential opportunities are as follows:"

Jan 9, 2018