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By W. E. Webb, R. H. Church, W. G. Hopkins

The development of systems for location of miners who have become entrapped following a mine disaster has been one of the major research goals in the Bureau of Mines. This study details the preliminary development of such a system. Current technologies for locating trapped miners from the surface are either simple direction, finders or time difference pulse systems that have accuracy Limitations. Developing technologies using full vector field measurements at several receiving points are currently being studied. The necessity of measuring field strength with great accuracy can be a drawback in these systems. A system that operates with continuous wave radio signals, whose phase differences can be measured accurately even in weak signal conditions, greatly improves the location accuracy. A microcomputer would be used, in conjunction with the system, to gather and manipulate the data to automatically pinpoint the location of the trapped miner. Comparison of this system with existing technology indicates a favorable accuracy/complexity ratio for the phase difference of arrival technique.

By John Durkin, Roy J. Greenfield

This report discusses the configuration and system deployment for the postdisaster surface seismic system for detecting and locating trapped miners. It analyzes the results of 15 field tests to define a signal model, background noise levels, and subarray performance. A waveform modeling procedure is described and compared with observed waveforms. The resulting similarity indicates that the major factors affecting the signal amplitude, waveform, and spectral character are understood. A model is presented which gives the signal amplitude as a function of source type, source depth, and horizontal off- set between source and receiver. Using this model a curve is presented which gives the range at which a signal will be detected for different signal and noise levels. Finally, and most important relative to the mission of the sys- tem, the ability of the system to detect signals on one or more subarrays is put into a probabilistic framework. For a strong source it is almost certain that a subarray directly over the source will detect the signal. After signal processing, it is highly likely that signals will he detected on sufficient subarrays to locate the trapped miner. Location errors have been found to be less than 100 ft in the majority of cases. Techniques have been used that can reduce the location errors to this level even when soil layer variation between subarrays is severe.

Jan 1, 1981

THE Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act (30 U.S.C., 321-325, and amendments) become law April 5, 1644, and a period of intensive research and development in this field was begun by the Bureau of Mines. As part of this program bulletins were published on a pressure hydrogenation,3 the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis,4 and oil shale.5 The Bureau also has published a short bibliography on coal gasification,6 mostly of a theoretical nature. Because coal gasification is prerequisite to Hither the Fischer-Tropsch or coal-hydrogenation processes, publishing this sizable, collection of technical information in this form will be valuable. The material is presented in three parts, as follows: I. United States Patents. II. United Kingdom, Australian, Canadian, and South African Patents. III. Belgium, French, German, Italian, and Swedish Patents. The domestic patents for this bulletin were collected between 1963 and 1955. Some of the Foreign Patents were collected at the same time and a few of them later in 1961. Part I was published in 1960; Part II was published in 1962.

Jan 1, 1964

By R. S. Dean

In the early days, most smelters were erected in nonarable land and at some distance from settled communities. The movement of population, which resulted in many instances from employment at the smelters, has brought to most smelterman in the United States the problem of preventing damage to plant and animal life in the territory adjacent to the smelters by sulphur dioxide gas (S02). This problem has been met, broadly, in two ways: (1) By diluting and removing the S02 by means of air currents and (2) by converting the S02 to a liquid or solid compound of sulphur and disposing of the compound.

Jan 1, 1937

By W. W. Adams

Reports received by the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, from State mine inspectors, for November, 1930, showed that 219 men were killed in the coal mines of the United States during the month, an increase of 25 over the previous month and 33 over November, 1929. On the other hand the production of coal decreased, the output of 43,329,000 tons in November being 8,397,000 tons less than in October and 9,005,000 tone less than in November a year ago. The larger number of fatalities accompanied by a smaller output of coal resulted in a higher death rate4 per million tons in November than in the same month last year or in October, 1930. The November rate was 5.05, as compared with 3.55 for November, 1929 and 3.75 for October, 1930. The increase in the rate for the industry as a whole was chargeable entirely to bituminous mines, as the anthracite mines had fewer fatalities in November than in either of the previous months to which reference has been made. Reports for bituminous mines alone showed that accidents at this class of mines resulted in a death rate of 5.12, based on 195 fatalities and a production of 38,122,000 tons. This rate indicated an increase of 55 per cent over the rate for October, of the same year, and 72 per cent over the rate for November, 1929. The October record was 146 fatalities and 44,150,000 tons, and that for November a year ago was 138 deaths and a production of 46,514,000 tons.

Jan 1, 1930

By R. S. Dean

In the early days, most smelters were erected in nonarable land and at some distance from settled communities. The movement of population, which resulted in many instances from employment at the smelters, has brought to most smelterman in the United States the problem of preventing damage to plant and animal life in the territory adjacent to the smelters by sulphur dioxide gas (S02). This problem has been met, broadly, in two ways: (1) By diluting and removing the S02 by means of air currents and (2) by converting the S02 to a liquid or solid compound of sulphur and disposing of the compound.

Jan 1, 1937

By H. J. Seim

An ion-exchange-instrumental analysis technique is described for analyzing impurities at 1 to 1,000 parts per million level in rare-earth metals. A cation-exchange flame photometric method is used for the alkali and alkaline earth groups of metals, and an anion-exchange procedure is used in conjunction with polarographic and X-ray fluorescence techniques for selected transition elements. The standard deviation is about 6 percent, and the average error, about 5 percent.

Jan 1, 1962

By Isaac A. Zlochower, Michael J. Sapko, Ronald S. Conti

The Bureau of Mines has developed a system using a high-speed electropneumatic mechanism for the rapid (grab) sampling of dusts and gases during an explosion. The sampling system consists of an aluminum housing that incorporates two 30-cm3 preevacuated glass vials with rubber septums. Upon actuation, the sampling probe needle is driven through the septum with a pressurized air pulse, filling the tube with gas and dust from the mine explosion. After a predetermined time, the sampling probe needle is retracted by a second high-pressure air pulse to its normal (quiescent) state, allowing the sampling tube to reseal. The onset and the duration of sampling are independently variable and controlled by a time-delay relay package. This technique enables the monitoring of pyrolysis-charring in coal particles and the generation and combustion of the pyrolysis vapors in both large- and small- scale explosions. The following results were obtained from full-scale dust explosion tests at the Bureau of Mines Lake Lynn Laboratory: (1) Gas sampling of the leading edge of the flame front shows the large concentration changes, characteristic of the flame front; (2) gas samples taken entirely in the flame zone consist of pyrolysis and combustion products with very low residual oxygen; and (3) the particles collected in the flame zone show signs of extensive pyrolysis and charring.

Jan 1, 1988

By Andrew Cecala, John Organiscak, William Heitbrink

Many types of heavy equipment used in the mining and construction industries use enclosed cabs to protect equipment operators from dust and noise exposure. Normally, when the equip- [ ] ment is new, manufacturers' deigned controls are effective at keeping the operator's exposure at acceptable level. However, as equipment becomes older and many components of the enclosure deteriorate, such as gaskets and seals, the effectiveness of the enclosed cab can be greatly reduced. This can cause excessive and dangerous exposures to respirable dust, especially when the ore or overburden contains crystalline silica.

By Gregory M. Molinda

The U.S. underground coal miner faces a continuing hazard from the fall of roof. At the root of many injuries and fatalities are weak or defective roof strata. Throughout mining history, millions of miles of entry have provided exposure of every conceivable geologic roof hazard. This report describes the geologic origin, association, and potential danger from the most common hazards. Discussions of weak rock include drawrock, rider coals, head coal, stackrock, and stream valley effects. Discontinuities, or roof defects, are described including, clay veins, slickensides, joints, and paleochannels. A number of examples from U.S. coalfields are used to document geologic structure and associated hazards. Roof fall analysis is a methodology used by NIOSH for hazard recognition and prevention; its application and benefit to the industry are discussed.

Jan 10, 2003

By Charles L. Kimbell

World political events that occurred subsequent to yearend 1990, but that bear heavily on the global mineral industry, have been of such importance that they cannot be disregaded, and certainly they contribute to any type of "outlook." However, to write of them simply as "forecasts" in an "outlook" section of this study would be to unjustly pretend to status as prophets. Thus, this section covers events that have occurred not as predictions but rather as history. Despite the end of the cold war, the world remained fractionated, at least from the limited perspective of its mineral industry. The fractionation was not so much the result of adversarial politics between countries and groups of countries, although to be sure, such conflicts had not disappeared. Rather, the fractionation was in the widely divergent patterns of performance that resulted from the diverse conditions and problems facing the different countries and country groups.

Jan 1, 1993

By T. L. Hebble

The Bureau of Mines investigated a hydrometallurgical procedure to recover Co, Ni, and Cu from an electrolytic zinc industrial copper filter cake. The copper filter cake is presently unmarketable or of low value because economic and environmentally acceptable processing technology is lacking. Research by the Bureau of Mines has developed a multistage process for recovering or recycling over 93 pct of the Zn, Cd, Cu, Co, and Ni from this material. The stages involved are (1) wet sizing, (2) H2S04 leaching of undersized material, (3) H2S04-Mn02 leaching of H2S04 leach residue, (4) selective precipitation of As, Cu, and Co-Ni products, and (5) precipitation of manganese for recycling to the leach circuit. The final process residue is only 1.6 wt-pct of the initial cake and consists of lead sulfate.

Jan 1, 1981

By A. W. Fahrenwald

The art of flotation has developed rapidly. Numerous technical staffs and individual investigators have, by their combined efforts, developed practicable methods of concentrating ores which ten or even five years ago were considered complex and impossible of commercial treatment. Also the work of those who have been engaged in pure research on the fundamentals of flotation has helped greatly to expedite the general development of the process. However, in spite of the highly successful practical operation of the flotation process, results are obtained and things happen that we are unable to explain completely, although much is known about the theory of the process. The rapid stride in flotation concentration, it is noteworthy to point out, is due to the freer exchange of facts and data by the staffs of the larger mining companies and the patent controlling corporations, and by investigators in general. Generally speaking, one may visit any mining plant and by presentation of proper credentials, be shown all that is going on or that is being done.

Jan 1, 1925

By Alexander May

In its role to provide technology to prevent or limit adverse environmental impacts associated with mining or minerals processing, the Bureau of Mines has conducted research at its Tuscaloosa Research Center to asess the environmental impacts of phosphogypsum produced by the Florida phosphate industry. Over the years, stockpiles containing 335 million tons of phosphogypsun have accumulated and the industry continues to generate an additional 33 million tons a year. Samples from approximately 1,000 feet of drill core, obtained from nine stockpiles were characterized using chemical, X-ray diffraction, emission spectrographic, radiological, and physical means. The data developed indicated that phosphogypsum is not a corrosive or toxic hazardous waste as defined by Environmental Protection Agency criteria. Radium concentration averaged 21 picocuries per gram and its content was inversely related to particle sizes. Thirty-nine elements were detected in phosphogypsum; concentrations of these elements did not vary with depth within the stockpiles.

Jan 1, 1982

By J. G. Donaldson

The Bureau of Mines investigated the formation of boron and boron-carbide coatings by vapor-phase reactions. Optimum parameters were determined for hydrogen reduction of boron trichloride and for the fonnation of boron-carbide coatings on graphite by reaction with the depositing boron. At 1,300° C, about 85 percent of the boron was deposited. Tungsten substrates did not react with the boron deposit; other substrates reacted to various extents. The hydrogen reduction of boron tribromide was briefly investigated. Boron carbide was deposited at 1,300° C by adding methane to the boron trichloride-hydrogen feed gas. The chemical composition of the vapor-deposited boron carbide approximated B4C. A method of etching B4C was developed to study its microstructure. When boron was deposited on graphite at 1,500° C, very hard, uniform, strongly adherent coatings of B4C were formed that might be useful in rocket nozzle applications.

Jan 1, 1968

By R. V. Higgins

A numerical method is presented to calculate the isopressure (isobar) lines and streamlines for an oilfield from the pressure distribution. A knowledge of these lines is useful in the study of the flow of fluids in underground reservoirs, especially for those containing gaseous and/or liquid hydrocarbons. This work was done primarily to enable determination of the shape factors needed in the calculation of petroleum reservoir performance. However, it has application for the flow of water in aquifers, or electricity or heat in odd-shaped geometry. Techniques previously developed were used to calculate the pressure distribution. From this pressure distribution, the isopressure lines were calculated accurately by the method presented in this paper. Then by successively projecting orthogonal lines from one isopressure line to another, the streamlines are determined. From the coordinates of the isopressures and the streamlines, the shape factors can then be determined by a published method. Computer methods are presented to calculate the streamlines and isopressures for any well-spacing pattern existing within a field with multiple wells. The method reproduces the flow net for several well configurations having extensive geometrical variations. Such information provides the petroleum engineer with data from which he can compute oil recoveries for different patterns and thereby maximize the recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir.

Jan 1, 1972

By Robert L. Rough

This report presents the results of an investigation by Federal Bureau of Mines engineers of water-injection projects in the northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York area, where oil-producing wells have been converted from pumping to flowing. Data from 24 leases converted to flowing were collected and examined. Only 10 leases had information of significant scope for inclusion in the final analysis. The projects were classified in one of two categories. Group I consisted of leases operated to permit an evaluation of operational changes in terms of existing pressure differentials between injection and producing wells. Group II included remaining properties, for which enough information was available to justify an economic analysis but which did not have sufficient production data to support an engineering study because of radical changes in operational techniques. Variations in production and costs resulting from conversion to flowing were examined for production methods, well-spacing and completion techniques, and reservoir characteristics. Where water-injection rates were constant, oil production usually decreased rapidly at the time of conversion; production then increased slightly for 6 to 8 months before resuming a normal decline rate considerably below the estimated pumping rate. The abrupt decrease in production after conversion is indicative of lower pressure differentials between injection and producing wells, caused by the increased hydrostatic head in the producing wells.

Jan 1, 1960

By Steven J. Schatzel, Gerrit V. R. Goodman, Robert B. Krog, C. Özgen Karacan, Gabriel S. Esterhuizen

Although longwall mining productivity can far exceed that of room-and-pillar mining, the total methane emissions per extracted volume associated with longwall sections are generally higher than those for continuous miner or pillar removal sections. Increased face advance rates, increased productivities, increased panel sizes, and more extensive gate road developments have challenged existing designs for controlling methane on longwalls. Methane control research by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recently examined a number of practices designed to maintain concentrations in mine air within statutory limits and consistently below the lower explosive limit. These included a reservoir modeling approach to predict methane inflows in gate road entries. The outputs sug­gested that emission rates in the gate roads decreased with the use of shielding boreholes and increased degasification time. Also, mining perpendicular to the face cleats liberated more gas into the mine workings, emissions were almost a linear function of Langmuir pressure and volume, and emissions were inversely related to sorption time constant. Subsequent simulations predicted changes in methane drainage using in-seam boreholes. The results showed that longer degasification times resulted in lower face emission rates. Premining degasification produced more methane than that produced during panel extraction, a fact attributed to the already decreased methane content of the coalbed. This work concluded that longer premining degasification periods would be more advantageous to the operator. The industry trend toward increasing longwall face width can produce increased methane emissions from the face due to a higher volume of cut coal on the face conveyor. Two methods were used to estimate face methane levels on longer faces. In the first method, segmented methane data were extrapolated for greater face widths. The second method estimated emissions contributions from the shearer, face conveyor, panel belt, longwall face, and ribs, and summed these for wider panels. Permeability changes in the gob behind the longwall shields were estimated using a NIOSH-developed numerical model. The results showed that permeability was highest near the edges and corners of the gob.

Jan 3, 2008

By Thomas M. Barczak

The U.s. Bureau of Mines is conducting research to optimize the utilization and design of mine roof support systems. This report describes methods to evaluate resultant loading on longwall shields, defined as external resultant vertical and horizontal force acting on the canopy and base. Four models are considered: two rigid-body models, an elastic model, and a numerical model. The rigid-body models equate measured internal shield forces to unknown external resultant shield forces (loads) through rigid-body analysis of static equilibrium requirements. The elastic model develops a solution to shield mechanics by evaluation of the load-displacement relationship and stiffness characteristics of the support structure. The numerical model is a two-dimensional finite-element representation of a shield structure. Model determination of resultant shield loading is compared to controlled loading of a shield in the Bureau's mine roof simulator. Parameters investigated are shield height, canopy contact configuration, canopy and base horizontal constrainment, and boundary conditions imposed by vertical and horizontal shield displacements. It is concluded that rigid-body models are most applicable to in situ measurement of shield loading. Applications requirements and potential error sources are discussed.

Jan 1, 1990

By Ronald D. Hill, Elmore C. Grim

Surface mining drastically alters the ecological characteristics of the area disturbed and in some cases has a decided effect on surrounding areas. Vegetation is removed, topographic features and characteristics are changed, and the original geologic overburden profiles are destroyed. Spoil banks generally are a heterogeneous mixture of rock fragments, rock particles, and soil-sized material derived from the overburden strata. With proper mining techniques, the various strata can be partially or completely segregated. Segregation of over- burden material offers the opportunity to bury the toxic, acid, or salt-pro producing strata under growth supporting material. In some situations, lower strata may have more desirable characteristics than surface material and can be placed near or on the surface. For example, limestone strata appear in some lower overburden profiles that have shale and/or sandstone near the surface. Also, some lower strata have higher nutrient levels that have been leached from the surface. Experience has shown that natural revegetation is a very slow process on strip mined areas. Native vegetation may not be compatible with the environment on the mined areas, for example : 1. Low nutrients in the spoil. 2. Toxic spoils (very acid or highly alkaline ). 3. Surrounding vegetation may be of the climax type and may not have pioneer- or primary-invader-type species present. 4. The seed source may be to far away from the adjacent mined areas. Early attempts to revegetate strip-mined lands with trees also proved to be unsatisfactory as they did not provide the initial ground cover required to stabilize the spoil. Erosion control with trees only may take up to 10 years before the canopies close and an effective cover is established. They are slow to form soil profiles and do not provide effective chemical pollution control until long after planting. A quick growing cover of herbaceous species is necessary to obtain quick stabilization and initial protection against erosion by reducing runoff and rain-drop splash. Vegetative cover will also build up a concentration of organic matter in the soil, which in turn will

Jan 1, 1974