Search Documents

ARIZONA Established July 10, 1915 ROBERT W. THOMAS. Chairman ROBERT W. HUGHES, Vice-Chairman HUBERT O. WOODS, Secretary-Treasurer American Smelting & Refining Co., Hayden, Ariz. LYLE BARKER M. G. FOWLER RICHARD BRITTAIN M: C. HENRIE B. S. BUTLER F. D. 1. HONEYMAN T. G. CHAPMAN J. E. LANNING C. H. COLE A. MENDELSOHN G. C. DAVIS BRENT N. RICHARD E. Ii. DENTZER C. F. WILLIS

Jan 1, 1943

By Joseph E. Pogue

Price is a complicated concept, for price is both a cause and an effect. This reciprocal aspect is commonly overlooked and the oversight is the source of many economic maladjustments. Price is the resultant of the ratio between supply and demand, but it differs from a mathematical concept of a proportion, by itself constituting an economic force which continuously alters the elements that determine the relationship. Price, therefore, is not merely the outcome of other forces but is in its own right one of the most powerful of economic agents. Price accordingly does not play a passive role; nor can it be sterilized or rendered inactive. In consequence, price cannot be fixed or at least kept fixed, except by the elimination of all freedom of choice on the part of producers and consumers. A primary objective of all economic activity is equilibrium. The same is true of a unit of economic activity, the single industry. The plane upon which equilibrium centers may shift in the course of time, but equilibrium itself is the point of departure and the point of return. If an industry is in equilibrium, that industry is operating effectively. The motivating forces of an industry—profits or the common good—are not to be confused with the prerequisite of equilibrium, but this mistake is often made. The producer is dominated by the profit motive; the consumer, or his collective representative, by the general welfare motive. No one is the advocate for equilibrium; that status is supposed to be arrived at automatically. If the forces of competition are perfectly free, such is the tendency. Equilibrium For the purposes of this analysis, equilibrium needs to be broadly defined and is conceived to involve: (1) balance between supply and demand; (2) internal equipoise amongst the elements within an industry; and (3) symmetry in respect to the whole economy. This definition implies flexibility and case of adjustment; a ready accommodation to change. Equilibrium does not postulate profits or nonprofits, social objectives or the lack of them. A decadent industry may be in equilib-

Jan 1, 1937

By John Tabor, R. B. Spivey

INTRODUCTION Shafts have been sunk in a number of ways. By and large, however, most have been sunk by drill, blast, muck, and slip form methods. Most methods have provided satisfactory means of completion. The major drawbacks to the conventional methods have been: (1) un- reliable cost estimates for completion; (2) unreliable rates of progress; and (3) unreliable integrity of the shaft lining. Recently , engineering design studies have been done that strongly indicate, that, by the use of existing proven technology, shafts can be completed faster, more cheaply, safer, and with a better lining that has been possible using conventional methods. THE METHOD The alternate method utilizes the techniques of big hole drilling, shield excavator tunnelling, and pre-cast concrete lining. Big Hole Drilling - Drilled shafts have been completed for several years and I don't intend to address the technology, only to point out the use of drilled shafts is an alternate method of shaft sinking. Ideally, in a multi-shaft mine, the first shaft would be blind bored and cased to a size, whereby it can handle the muck from the excavation of subsequent shafts. It should be an 8' to 10' completed diameter. The cost of such a shaft in sedimentary formations compares favorably with a conventional shaft. However, it is much faster. For additional shafts, the role of the drill is to complete small holes (3' to 4') to the desired horizon. This is merely a hole to allow slashing to a larger size with easier muck removal from an underground drift connected to the previously drilled shaft. The smaller holes, just as the larger one, should be cased and grouted into place so as to assure a smooth open hole. SHIELD EXCAVATOR Theory and History - Tunnelling Shields have been in common use for several decades, and steam powered shields were used in England over 100 years ago. The purpose of the shield is to provide temporary ground support, protect personnel during operation, and to house the excavating equipment. The excavating equipment approach has varied from attempts at a continuous or semi-continuous boring machine, the tunnel mole, to a mechanical or hydraulic digging arm. The shield may or may not be an active digging element. If not active, the boring tool or cutter is advanced ahead of the shield to full diameter and then the shield is moved up to the cutter, or the shield advances along with the cutter. If active, the cutter opens a conical free face, and the shield is either jacked forward so that the leading edge spalls rock to the free face or poling plates are thrust forward to spall to the free face. In either approach, various methods of muck removal are incorporated into the shield. These may be gathering arms, conveyors, or with moles, hydraulic transport, where the cuttings are sufficiently fine. The efficiency of the muck removal system is critical as excavation is rapid and the system could easily become muck-bound. Application to Shaft Sinking- Technically, the use of a shield to sink vertical shafts is no different than a tunnelling operation. It is, in fact, less complex in most respects. Muck and water removal are difficult in a blind-driven shaft. However, where an underground opening is available for handling muck and water, rapid shield sinking is possible, using a pilot hole for muck and water to fall through and be removed from below. The Tabor Mining Shield is basically a caisson approach, whereby, the ground is only seen at the face or bottom. It does have hydraulic jacks to force it downward and has segmented cutting edges which allows forepoling ahead of the shield. The hydraulic excavator allows mining in the center of the face around the previously drilled hole with the forepoling segments slabbing to this free face. First, the drilled hole is cased and grouted. The machine is a tube with an excavator. The work cycle is as follows: (1) The casing and grout are cut at predetermined intervals by shaped charges. (2) The casing is crushed by the excavator, removed from the hole and hoisted to the surface. (3) The excavator then rips out a face around the hole by digging the formation in tension and breaking the pieces

Jan 1, 1982

By Victor Formanek, Paul Chataignon, Maurice Rey

IT is found when floating oxidized lead ores by sulphidization, that the presence of calcium salts in the water, is usually detrimental and lowers the recovery. This effect is particularly marked in dry countries such as North Africa, where the waters often carry large amounts of calcium sulphate and where the ore may even contain gypsum. The effect of calcium salts is readily visible. Whereas in their absence cerussite is quickly stained brown and then black by sodium sulphide, in their presence the mineral remains very light in color. A similar effect is produced when barium sulphide is used as a sulphidizing agent instead of sodium sulphide. Magnesium salts have little or no effect and even tend to reduce the detrimental effect of calcium salts. A study of this phenomenon indicates that it is due to the precipitation of calcium or barium carbonate in contact with the mineral simultaneously with the formation of lead sulphide. The chemical reactions can be interpreted as: PbCO3 + Na2S = PbS + Na2CO3 CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2 SO4 They might also be written: PbCO3 + S = + Ca++ = PbS + CaCO3 The precipitation of calcium carbonate can be followed by the lowering of the pH with which it is accompanied. Magnesium carbonate is more soluble than calcium carbonate and usually does not precipitate under the conditions prevailing. It is interesting to note that calcium salts have no effect on anglesite (lead sulphate) because calcium sulphate is soluble, but barium salts hinder the sulphidization of anglesite because of the precipitation of barium sulphate. Remedies When calcium sulphate is present in large amounts, the softening of the water with soda ash is usually too expensive to be considered, but the precipitation of the objectionable calcium carbonate can be prevented in two different ways. One is the use of sodium hydrosulphide instead of sodium sulphide. This salt gives a lower pH than sodium sulphide and does not bring about the immediate precipitation of the calcium which remains in solution as calcium bicarbonate. The other procedure is to add ammonium salts such as the sulphate or chloride which have the property of increasing markedly the solubility of calcium carbonate. Ammonium salts have other effects such as cutting down conditioning time and accelerating flotation. They should be added to the flotation cells rather than to the ball mills. Table I. Effect of Sodium Hydrosulphide and/or Ammonium Sulphate on the Flotation of Two Oxidized Lead Ores Mibladen Ore4 La Plagne Ored Con- Tall- Con- Tail-centrate ing centrate ing Reagents Pb, Pct Pb, Pct Pb, Pct Pb, Pot Without addition of CaSO, NaS 56.0 0.68 43.4 0.65 NaSH 56.2 0.60 40.4 0.50 Na2S + (NH4)2SO4d 54.6 0.56 NaSH + (NH4)2SO4d 43.0 0.66 With addition of 40 lb/ton CaSO4 Na2S 39.4 3.85 34.0 3.21 NaSH 49.1 0.70 49.6 0.88 Na2S + (NH4)2SO4d 53.9 0.85 NaSH + (NH4)2SO4d 51.0 0.45 41.1 0.78 In table I are given the results of representative tests on two different oxidized ores. They show that the strongly detrimental effects of calcium sulphate can be offset by the two procedures outlined above. Sodium hydrosulphide is now used regularly on a mill scale on certain ores. Tests are being carried out with ammonium salts. It should be noted that malachite is subject to influences similar to cerussite. One final word of caution—when the ore is rich in primary slime, which is flocculated by the calcium salts, it may be indispensable to remove these by washing or precipitation with sodium carbonate instead of keeping them in solution by the above methods. Acknowledgment We wish to thank Socibtk Miniere & Metallurgique de Penarroya and Minerais et Metaux, for permission to publish these results.

Jan 1, 1951

By Maurice Rey, Victor Formanek, Paul Chataignon

IT is found when floating oxidized lead ores by sulphidization, that the presence of calcium salts in the water, is usually detrimental and lowers the recovery. This effect is particularly marked in dry countries such as North Africa, where the waters often carry large amounts of calcium sulphate and where the ore may even contain gypsum. The effect of calcium salts is readily visible. Whereas in their absence cerussite is quickly stained brown and then black by sodium sulphide, in their presence the mineral remains very light in color. A similar effect is produced when barium sulphide is used as a sulphidizing agent instead of sodium sulphide. Magnesium salts have little or no effect and even tend to reduce the detrimental effect of calcium salts. A study of this phenomenon indicates that it is due to the precipitation of calcium or barium carbonate in contact with the mineral simultaneously with the formation of lead sulphide. The chemical reactions can be interpreted as: PbCO3 + Na2S = PbS + Na2CO3 CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2 SO4 They might also be written: PbCO3 + S = + Ca++ = PbS + CaCO3 The precipitation of calcium carbonate can be followed by the lowering of the pH with which it is accompanied. Magnesium carbonate is more soluble than calcium carbonate and usually does not precipitate under the conditions prevailing. It is interesting to note that calcium salts have no effect on anglesite (lead sulphate) because calcium sulphate is soluble, but barium salts hinder the sulphidization of anglesite because of the precipitation of barium sulphate. Remedies When calcium sulphate is present in large amounts, the softening of the water with soda ash is usually too expensive to be considered, but the precipitation of the objectionable calcium carbonate can be prevented in two different ways. One is the use of sodium hydrosulphide instead of sodium sulphide. This salt gives a lower pH than sodium sulphide and does not bring about the immediate precipitation of the calcium which remains in solution as calcium bicarbonate. The other procedure is to add ammonium salts such as the sulphate or chloride which have the property of increasing markedly the solubility of calcium carbonate. Ammonium salts have other effects such as cutting down conditioning time and accelerating flotation. They should be added to the flotation cells rather than to the ball mills. Table I. Effect of Sodium Hydrosulphide and/or Ammonium Sulphate on the Flotation of Two Oxidized Lead Ores Mibladen Ore4 La Plagne Ored Con- Tall- Con- Tail-centrate ing centrate ing Reagents Pb, Pct Pb, Pct Pb, Pct Pb, Pot Without addition of CaSO, NaS 56.0 0.68 43.4 0.65 NaSH 56.2 0.60 40.4 0.50 Na2S + (NH4)2SO4d 54.6 0.56 NaSH + (NH4)2SO4d 43.0 0.66 With addition of 40 lb/ton CaSO4 Na2S 39.4 3.85 34.0 3.21 NaSH 49.1 0.70 49.6 0.88 Na2S + (NH4)2SO4d 53.9 0.85 NaSH + (NH4)2SO4d 51.0 0.45 41.1 0.78 In table I are given the results of representative tests on two different oxidized ores. They show that the strongly detrimental effects of calcium sulphate can be offset by the two procedures outlined above. Sodium hydrosulphide is now used regularly on a mill scale on certain ores. Tests are being carried out with ammonium salts. It should be noted that malachite is subject to influences similar to cerussite. One final word of caution—when the ore is rich in primary slime, which is flocculated by the calcium salts, it may be indispensable to remove these by washing or precipitation with sodium carbonate instead of keeping them in solution by the above methods. Acknowledgment We wish to thank Socibtk Miniere & Metallurgique de Penarroya and Minerais et Metaux, for permission to publish these results.

Jan 1, 1951

By R. W. Fountain, M. Korchynsky

The precipitation phenomena occurring in cobalt-tantalum alloys have been investigated in the temperature range frm 500" to 1050°C by correlating the results of metallographic, X-ray, micro-and macrohardness, and electrical resistivity studies. The property andmacrohardness,changes were found to depend on 1) general precipitation, and 2) lamellar precipitation. Two new intermetallic phases have been identified: 1) a Co3Ta, a metastable ordered face-centered-cubic compound, and 2) a stable ß Co3Ta phase of hexagonal structure. In addition, the previously reported Co2Ta phase was found to exist in two allotropic modifications: the hexagonal MgZn,-type and the cubic MgCu2-type Laves phases. SINCE a large variety of structures can result as a consequence of the decomposition of a solid solution, predictions on the nature of property changes are difficult, if not impossible, to make. For any rational attempt to correlate properties and structures of a precipitation-hardenable alloy, a detailed understanding of the kinetics of decomposition and morphology of phase separation, as well as knowledge of phase relationships, appears to be prerequisite. Information of this type has been accumulated in the past for many alloy systems, both of theoretical and pastforpractical importance.1,2 Although the presence of intermetallic compounds has been reported in cobalt-base alloys,3 the amount of published information on precipitation-hardenable cobalt-base systems is very limited. A survey of the binary phase diagrams of cobalt indicates that cobalt-tantalum alloys might be of interest as typical of other cobalt-base systems in which Laves phases of the A,B type can be precipitated from solid solution. The present work has been undertaken, therefore, to study the kinetics and morphology of the precipitation reaction in this system and to establish a base for a correlation between the structural aspects and properties in this class of alloys. PREVIOUS WORK The only available phase diagram of the cobalt-tantalum system is based on the work of Koster and Mulfinger. According to these authors, the maximum solubility of tantalum in cobalt is about 13 pct (at 1275°C) and. less than 7 pct at room temperature. Tantalum additions lower the temperature of allotropic transformation of cobalt (about 420°C), and at 7 pct Ta, the high-temperature face-centered-cubic modification (ß cobalt) is retained at room temperature. The precipitating phase was originally designated as Co5Ta2 compound (55.2 pct Ta, about 1550°C melting point), but subsequent investigations by wallbaum5" identified this constituent as the A,B-type Laves phase. Wallbaum's data indicate that there are two modifications of this intermetallic compound: one richer in cobalt (Co2.2 Tao.8)of the hexagonal MgNi, type; and another of a higher tantalum content (Co2Ta) of the cubic MgCu, type. On the other hand, Elliott7 found that the cobalt-rich alloy (CO2.10,Tao.~l) was predominantly the cubic MgCu, type at 800°C and a mixture of both the MgCu2 and the hexagonal MgZn,-type Laves phases at 1000°C. At 1200°C, Elliott found only the MgZn, type while at 1400°C, he observed only the MgCu2 type. At the stoichiometric composition, Co2Ta, Elliott reported only the cubic MgCu2-type Laves phase in the temperature range of 600oto 1600°C. The precipitation of the cobalt-tantalum intermetallic compound is accompanied by a marked increase in hardness. According to Koster's4 data, the Brinell hardness of an 8 pct Ta-Co alloy increases from 230 to 340 upon short-time aging at 800°C. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The binary cobalt-tantalum alloys investigated contained 5, 10, and 15 pct Ta. The range of tantalum additions was thus slightly broader than the reported minimum and maximum solid solubility limits of tantalum in cobalt (7 and 13 pct, respectively)4 The alloys were vacuum-induction melted in a magnesia crucible using cobalt rondelles and technically pure tantalum sheet as raw materials. Deoxidation of the melt was accomplished with carbon, and the chemical analysis of the alloys is given in Table I. The effect of isothermal aging treatments on the progress of precipitation was studied on samples cut from cast ingots. These samples were solution treated for 2 hr at 1250°C and water-quenched. Aging was conducted in the temperature range from 500" to 1050°C for periods between 15 min and 1000 hr and followed by water-quenching. To prevent contamination from the atmosphere, all samples were sealed in evacuated Vycor or quartz tubes for heat-treatments. For solution treatment, argon at 0.2 atmospheric pressure was introduced prior to sealing of the capsule to prevent collapse at high temperature, and titanium sponge was placed at one end of the capsule to act as a getter. MACROHARDNESS The effect of aging on Vickers hardness (Dph) of

Jan 1, 1960

By J. M. Oblak, W. A. Owczarski

A cellular appearing recrystallization product formed by annealing a cold-worked nickel-base super-alloy at 1800°F has been studied by electron nzicroscopy. Prior to deformation, an equilibrium micro-structure of fcc matrix y and cuboidal ,,', Ni (Al, Ti), precipitates of CuzAu structure had been established by an age at 1825°F. The strain-free recrystallization cells consist of very large rodular y' particles in a y matrix. They precipitate is oriented and coherent both before and after recrystallization. The results showed that y' coarsening accompanies recrystallization at 1800°F. However, it does so as a secondary effect and does not necessarily take place at lower temperatures. The structural similarity of this reaction to cellular precipitation in other systems indicates that lattice strain may also play a significant role during some cellular precipitation reactions. THERE have been numerous microstructural investigations of recrystallization in single-phase materials but two-phase systems have received much less attention. The second phase can either remain inert or be altered along with the matrix during recrystallization. If the second phase is an oxidelm3 or a relatively inert pre~ipitate,~, recrystallization is retarded when the interparticle spacing is less than 1 p. Prior to the onset of recrystallization, these materials show a well-polygonized substructure with the subgrain size limited by the interparticle spacing. Since recrystallization by the motion of preexisting grain boundaries6 is not observed, retardation has been related to particle pinning of the subboundaries. This pinning prevents coalescence' or growth8 of subgrains to a critical size (formation of a high-angle boundary) necessary to initiate recrystallization. In a material such as a nickel-base superalloy both y matrix and y' precipitate are altered by the recrystallization reaction. Haessner et al.' studied the recrystallization of a cold-rolled Ni-Cr-A1 alloy by electron microscopy. The material was initially cold-rolled in the supersaturated condition. upon annealing at 750°C, immediate precipitation of 7'occurred. Presence of this 7' greatly retarded the onset of recrystallization which eventually took place by the development of randomly oriented, strain-free grains. The original •/ was dissolved at the recrystallization interface and reprecipitated as oriented, coherent par-tiles in the new grain. Recrystallization caused a refinement of .)' particle size. Recently ~hillips'' investigated recrystallization of Ni-12.7 at. pct Al. Reduction by cold rolling presumably elongated the p' precipitate into lamellae that remained coherent with the matrix. After recrystallization at 600" to 750°C, there was no unusual change in y' particle size al- though there was a tendency toward clustering along the prior rolling direction at 750°C. Above 750°C, the recrystallized grains were generally free of precipitate. Studies in the somewhat analogous Cu-3.23 wt pct CO" and Cu-2 wt pct'2 systems demonstrated that the coherent cobalt-rich fcc precipitate in these alloys obstructed softening, initiation, and completion of recrystallization. The precipitates were deformed into lam~llae during rolling and those of diameter less than 250A remained coherent. Recrystallization took place by the growth of new grains into the recovered or poly-gonized material. In the first study," both matrix and precipitate reoriented in the same manner upon passage of the recrystallization interface. There was no change in particle size or morphology. Tanner and ~ervi,~ on the other hand, observed that motion of the recrystallization fronts was strongly hindered by the pinning action of coherent precipitates in the deformed material. Particles in contact with a pinned boundary coarsened and coalesced leaving a denuded zone in the unrecrystallized region. When the number of pinning points was sufficiently reduced by coalescence, the boundary swept past these particles and through the denuded zone. The authors1' considered this as a variation of discontinuous precipitation with both chemical driving force and deformation strain energy contributing to recrystallization. Preliminary observations by the present authors had revealed that recrystallization in Udimet 700, a nickel-base superalloy, occurred in an entirely different manner. Optical metallography showed that the recrystallized product formed as cellular colonies containing coarse y' particles elongated in the direction of cell growth. In this investigation the structural features of this reaction were investigated by transmission electron microscopy. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE As-received I$-in. rounds of Udimet 700* were (wtpct) 18.4 15.2 4.95 4.42 3.43 0.06 0.031 0.14 Bal. solution-annealed for 4 hr at 2150" and then fast air-cooled. An initial y-~' structure was established by a 4-hr age at 1825°F followed by a fast air,cool. Essentially the equilibrium volume fraction of ?' at 1825°F is precipitated within 4 hr. Microstructural examination showed no measurable increase in the amount of precipitate after longer aging times. Deformation consisted of swaging to 52 pct RA with 6 pct reduction per pass at room temperature. To reduce the precipitation potential to a negligible amount, recrystallization anneals were conducted at 1800"~ (982"~). Microstructures were investigated by optical and transmission electron microscopy. To prepare foils for electron microscopy, the material was first sliced into 30-mil slabs parallel to the swaging direction. Discs were dimpled and electrolytically cut from

Jan 1, 1969

By M. M. Fine

Normally the U. S. produces less than 10 pct of its annual manganese requirement. About 95 pct of domestic consumption is used by the steel industry.' The strategic and critical nature of manganese has been recognized by its inclusion in the national stockpile and by intensified research directed toward cataloging and evaluating domestic manganiferous deposits. The USBM has participated in these activities for many years with field and laboratory studies to assess the extent and potential utilization of domestic manganese ores. One area of particular interest is in the vinicity of Batesville, Ark., where deposits have been mined since 1849 for both manganese and ferruginous manganese ores. Production is centered in Independence County, but deposits are also found in Sharp, Izard, and Stone counties in north-central Arkansas. Miser has described the geology and manganese mineralization in some detail.'. * "he rocks of the area are sedimentary, consisting of sandstone, limestone, shale, and chert. The two formations of greatest importance,' Fernvale limestone and Cason shale, are host rocks of the primary manganese mineralization. Through 1955 the district produced some 230,000 long tons of manganese ore (35 pct Mn or more) and 236,000 tons of ferruginous manganese (10 to 35 pct Mn).5 Most of the ore has been mined from deposits of manganese oxides in residual clays resulting from weathering of the two formations noted above. Concentration methods have been primitive, consisting for the most part of washing. hand picking, and jigging. A significant accomplishment in the district in recent years was the USBM recognition and investigation of the huge manganese potential represented by unaltered Fernvale limestone. systematic reconnaissance of manganiferous limestone and other occurrences has been in progress since 1953 to delineate the extent and tonnage of manganiferous materials. Results of that survey have appeared in two recent publications,1-5 which ascribe to the district an inferred reserve of 166 million long dry tons at a grade of 5 to 6 pct Mn. Most of this was mancaniferous limestone with an estimated content of 5 pct Mn. Specifications: Beneficiation was carried out on a group of manganiferous limestones to develop a way to recover commercial-grade concentrate from this extensive resource. The following chemical specifications were established by the GSA for metallurgical manganese ore acceptable for delivery to the national stockpile: Size specifications were not considered, as it was assumed that the concentrates could be pelletized or sintered. Manganiferous Limestones: Of the 11 samples tested to date, six were taken by cutting vertical channels across beds of limestone outcrops. Diamond drilling through overlying barren chert into unex-posed limestone provided four samples, and the last was a churn drill sample. In general, the samples were dlrk, fossiliferous limestone containing small amounts of braunite, hausmannite, rhodochrosite, massive and micaceous iron and manganese silicates, quartz, barite, and glauconite. The braunite and other manganese oxides partly to completely replaced some of the calcite and fossil material. The calcite was generously stained with mangenese and iron oxides. Phosphorus was present in all samples as collophanite grains, calcium phosphate fossil replacements. or an unidentified manganese-bearing carbonate. The difficulty in separating this complex array of minerals was further complicated by a very intimate association. Although some manganese grains as large as Ik in. were noted, grinding to subsieve sizes would have been necessary to liberate the components. Figs. 1 and 2 are micrographs, at X100, of typical polished sections in which white areas are manganese. gray is gangue, and black areas are surface depressions. By comparison with the 100 mesh opening, it is seen that some of the grains are coarse enough to respond, perhaps to tabling or flotation, but many are obviously beyond the scope of ohysical processing. Partial chemical analyses of the eight samples that were ultimately amenable to concentration are presented in Table 1. BENEFlClATlON RESEARCH Tabling: To take advantage of the presence of sand-size grains, both jigging and tabling were considered at the outset. Jigging was largely ineffective, but tabling achieved a partial recovery from most samples. As an example, the surface material from Baxter Hill was crushed to —28 mesh, hydraulically classified, and the coarsest spigot fraction was tabled to yield a concentrate, middling. and tailing. The latter two were reground to pass 48 mesh, combined with the primary fines, re-classified, and retabled. The middling and tailing were again ground, this time to pass 150 mesh, and deslimed at 20µ in a 3-in. hydraulic cyclone. The cyclone underflow was returned to the table to reclaim a small amount of high-grade manganese. An interesting facet of the gravity concentration developed on certain samples in which braunite was the principal manganese constituent. Since braunite has a Mohs hardness of 6 to 6.5, while the host rock, limestone. is only 3, a differential size reduction took place during crushing, and the

Jan 1, 1960

By G. W. Ostroot, S. Shryock

Cementing deep, high-temperature oil wells where static temperatures range from 350 to 400F has become routine in the part decade. In the United States there were 271 wells drilled deeper than 15,000 ft during 1963. Many of these wells had static temperatures higher than 400F. Bottom-hole static temperatures near 700F are now realities in the geother-mal (steam producing) wells of California's Salton Sea area. The detailed planning initiated prior to drilling the wells is discussed together with the methods, materials and equipment used in solving the cementing problems which are encountered. Data are also presented that lead to development of cementing compositions that provide adequate thickening time, do not retrogress in strength, and maintain low permeability under these extreme temperature conditions. Field data include the cementing programs used on eight relatively trouble-free geothermal steam wells in the Salton Sea area. INTRODUCTION Not too many years ago cementing oil wells with temperatures in the range of 300F caused considerable anxiety. In some areas of the United States it is now fairly common to cement wells having bottom-hole static temperatures in excess of 400F. We are now confronted with the problem of cementing wells with temperatures ranging from 500 to 700F. Temperatures in this order of magnitude are often found in geothermal steam wells. From where does this extreme heat emanate? There are many theories as to the source of this steam flow. The most widely held views are: (1) heat- ing of ground water fairly close to the surface by an intrusive mass of hot rock; (2) steam generation from a reservoir of metamorphic rock, normally found below 25,000 ft and not at the shallower depths of the Salton Sea reservoir; and (3) high-temperature gases (water vapor) escaping and migrating from molten or semi-molten rock (magma) at a considerable depth. Of these. No. 3 seems to be the most generally acceptable explanation. Heat from springs and fumaroles has been used for years as a means of heating and cooking; however, significant progress in harnessing the vast power of underground steam reservoirs has been relatively slow. The first large-scale attempt to use the heat generated by steam from wells was made in Italy around the beginning of the 20th century. In excess of 250,000 kw of electrical power is now being produced from holes around Larde-rello, Italy. Another very active drilling program was initiated in the volcanic area of New Zealand in 1949.' Natural steam for power projects in the United States began in the early 1920's. An early commercial steam field is located at the Geysers, approximately 75 miles north of San Francisco, an area discovered in 1847 and used for many years as a health resort. Steam originates from 15 wells that have been drilled since 1957. The present output from this project is 25,000 kw. Success of the Geysers operation has been responsible for several companies taking a careful look at the feasibility of producing steam for power generation in the Salton Sea area of Southern California's Imperial Valley. Geothermal steam activity in this latter area began in 1961 when O'Neill, Ashmun and Hilliard completed Sportsman No. 1, at that time the hottest wellbore in the world.' Since its References given at end of paver. completion seven additional wells have been successfully completed in this area. Many problems encountered in drilling steam wells had to be overcome to make the ventures successful. Formation temperatures encountered in the Salton Sea seemed to be a straight-line function (a gradient of 13F per 100 ft of depth).' This imposed severe conditions on all aspects of drilling and completion. This varied, to some extent, from gradients in the older geothermal areas. Not to be overlooked is the effect of these temperatures on casing creep or elongation by thermal expansion (Table I), because standard API flanged wellhead equipment makes no provision for this kind of performance. Floating equipment was redesigned, and changes in types of downhole equipment were made in an effort to eliminate anticipated problems. In the later completed wells, standard oil-well cementing equipment has been used. During the early development of geothermal steam wells there were some problems resulting from blowouts. However, these were eliminated in the deeper Salton Sea wells and no problems were encountered with the drilling mud. A sodium surfactant mud was used on the Sportsman No. 1 to drill from 2,690 to total depth. Nevertheless, it was necessary that a cooling system be added and the mud cooled before circulating it back into the well. The difficulty in evaluating the size of the steam area and its potential in terms of pounds of steam and years of productivity still has not been resolved. Economic complexities have also entered into the steam play in the Salton Sea. The wells at the Geysers were drilled at a cost of $15,000 to $20,-000, whereas the Salton Sea wells will cost more than $150,000. This cost differential has to some extent been accounted for because of the heavily

Jan 1, 1965

By P. Duwez, C. B. Jordan

The phenomenon of the change of volume of pressed powder compacts upon sintering is well known in the field of powder metallurgy. Depending upon the metal or metals involved and the pressure used in forming, a compact may, in the course of time of sintering at a given temperature, expand mono-tonically, contract monotonically, or first show a volume change of one sign followed by a change of the opposite sign. It is clearly desirable to have accurate knowledge of the magnitude and sign of the change in dimensions to be expected in any given case, both from the point of view of direct usefulness in the fabrication of parts by powder metallurgy, and from the longer range viewpoint of elucidating the fundamental mechanism of metallic sintering. The present study was therefore undertaken as a first step in acquiring systematic and reasonably quantitative knowledge of the change in density of metal powder compacts during sintering. For practical reasons, copper was selected as the material to be studied first, and its densification followed as a function of temperature and time of sintering in hydrogen and in vacuum. Experimental Procedure The copper powder used was that designated by the manufacturer (Metals Disintegrating Co., Elizabeth, N. J.) as MD-151. This powder was sifted through Tyler standard screens to separate the fraction having particle size range between 200 mesh and 325 mesh, and this fraction was used in all the subsequent work. Compacts weighing about 10 g were then pressed in a 1 in. diam round die, using a pressure of 20,000 psi throughout. Sintering was carried out in commercially built electric furnaces in which the resistance windings are so disposed as to produce a nearly uniform temperature along the axis of the furnace for a length of about 18 in. centrally located. In order to be able to sinter in a controlled atmosphere, a 2 in. stainless steel tubing was inserted in the furnace. Each end of the tube was cooled by a water jacket about 7 in. long, and closed with a rubber stopper. The hydrogen used for one series of specimens was purified as described in Ref. 1. For the other set, a pressure of about 0.5 mm Hg was maintained during sintering by a Welch Duo-Seal Pump. The specimens were heated on square trays made of stainless steel. In placing specimens in the trays, a thin even layer of powdered aluminum oxide was first sprinkled on the bottom of the tray. A copper guard disk about half the thickness of the specimen was then placed in the tray and covered with a second layer of alumina. The actual specimen was then set on the guard disk, and a final coat of alumina sprinkled over the specimen. This technique was evolved for sintering the specimens in such a way as to reduce the influence of unknown extraneous factors to a minimum. If the specimen is placed directly on the tray and sintered, it is found that the resulting shape is that of a frustum of a cone, rather than a section of a right circular cylinder, since friction with the tray prevents the bottom of the specimen from contracting at the same rate as the top. In the arrangement used in these experiments, the guard disk provided a support which shrank at the same rate as the specimen, and the alumina powder reduced to a minimum friction between guard disk and tray, and between specimen and guard disk. The procedure followed in sintering consisted of bringing the furnace to the required temperature, and then inserting the specimen into the central heated portion of the furnace tube in one of the two atmospheres used. At the end of the heating period, the specimen was cooled by bringing it into a portion of the furnace surrounded by a water jacket. These manipulations were carried out without opening the furnace, by means of rods which were attached to the trays and operated through a sliding seal in the rubber stopper. The progress of densification of the copper compacts was studied at 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, and 1800°F. At each of these temperatures, a specimen was allowed to sinter for each of the following time intervals: M, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 hr. The thickness and diameter of each specimen were measured with micrometers before and after sintering, and each was weighed on an analytical balance after sintering. Results The techniques described in the preceding section were found to give satisfactory results. The specimens were not detectibly warped after sintering, and were usually of uniform diameter (that is, truly round) to within 0.001 in., a very few showing a variation in diameter of ±0.002 in. All specimens were found to have the same diameter

Jan 1, 1950

By Robert B. Fulton

Commercially, celestite (SrSO4) is the predominant strontium mineral. Among other strontium-bearing minerals, only strontianite (SrCO3) occurs commonly; however, it is rarely an item of commerce. Production of celestite is principally in Mexico, Spain, and Turkey. An attempt to produce celestite in Canada was unsuccessful. The United States, which is wholly dependent on imports, chiefly from Mexico (99%), is the largest consumer of strontium. Lesser quantities are consumed in Japan and Europe. The Federal Republic of Germany is the principal source of strontium compounds imported to the US. Uses The principal uses of strontium are for the manufacture of strontium carbonate and nitrate. Carbonate is used in glass for TV tube face plates and in ceramic ferrites for magnets. Nitrate is used in pyrotechnics, mainly in safety flares, to which it imparts a characteristic brilliant red color. Minor amounts of strontium compounds are used in electrolytic zinc manufacturing where the carbonate is used to remove unwanted lead. Small quantities are consumed in greases, ceramics, soaps, alloys, and pharmaceuticals. Specifications Typical celestite specifications for the carbonate and nitrate markets are shown in Table 1. Specifications of manufactured carbonate, sold in two grades, one to the glass industry and the other for ceramic ferrites, are shown in Table 2. Both grades of carbonate are shipped in palletized 50-lb bags. Glass grade material is shipped in bulk by rail. [ ] Manufacturing Processes The following description is adapted from Anon. (1980) . The manufacturing process for strontium carbonate and strontium nitrate chemicals is conceptually simple. Strontium nitrate is made from strontium carbonate in two additional steps. The production process begins with celestite, the natural form of strontium sulfate. In the first step the ore is crushed, ground, and mixed with coke. This mixture is then fed into a kiln where the ore is reduced at high temperatures to strontium sulfide; the coke is added to the ore as a source of energy and carbon. The carbon combines with the oxygen [ ]

Jan 1, 1983

By J. W. Halley

THE effects of tin on steel have become increasingly important because of the necessity of using poorly detinned scrap, tin cans, and terne plate, in the open hearth. Since a tin can contains about 1.5 per cent tin, it would be possible to have up to 0.75 per cent tin in steel made with a 50 per cent scrap charge. In order to use tin-containing scrap, it is necessary to know the effect of tin on various grades of steel. The following investigation is by no means comprehensive but covers a number of steels in which tin content is important. PUBLISHED WORK A number of investigations of the effects of tin on rolling quality and physical properties have been published. It has been found that tin increases strength and hardness and reduces ductility and notched impact resistance. The decrease in ductility and notched impact resistance becomes more marked as the carbon decreases. McKimm1 found no change in Olsen ductility, Rockwell hardness, yield strength, tensile strength or elongation in cold-reduced strip containing up to 0.124 per cent tin. A tin content of 0.15 per cent gave difficulties in rolling and increased the hardness but 0.21 per cent tin showed no change in properties from material containing very little tin. No explanation of this contradiction is offered. Andrew and Peile2 investigated steels containing 0.10 to 0.25 per cent carbon and up to 0.63 per cent tin. They found an increase in tensile strength 0f from 100 t0 200 lb. per sq. in. for each 0.01 per cent tin on normalized samples. The elongation and reduction of area were decreased and the notched impact resistance was reduced markedly. Quenched and drawn samples did not show embrittling if water-quenched from the draw temperature of 1148°F. (620°C.). They could find no evidence of tin under the microscope. Whitely and Braithwaite3 investigated the effect of tin on rail steel containing 0.55 to 0.60 per cent carbon. They found that 0.08 per cent tin caused a marked decrease in elongation, notched impact resistance and the degree of bend. The tensile strength was increased in some tests and not in others. Bolsover and Barraclough4 investigated the effect of tin up to 0.50 per cent on a 0.35 per cent carbon steel and on several alloy steels with from 0.30 to 0.40 per cent carbon. They found a comparatively uniform decrease in notched impact resistance with increasing tin on quenched and drawn samples. If the samples were quenched from the drawing temperature or reheated to the drawing temperature and quenched, the embrittling was much less severe. Steels containing molybdenum suffered much less embrittlement than other steels. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Effect of Tin on Low-carbon Rimmed Steel Increasing quantities of tin were added to four ingots of a heat of the following ladle analysis: carbon, 0.08 per cent; manganese, 0.39; phosphorus, 0.009; sulphur, 0.025.

Jan 1, 1942

By C. W. Spencer, Che-Yu Li, R. J. Knight

The usual reaction product for the monotectic reaction in the Bi-Se system consists of rod -shaped particles of selenium-rich liquid embedded in a single crystal matrix of At certain crystallo-graphic orientations of the matrix with respect to the reaction interface, more complex shapes are as -sumed by the liquid particles. This reaction has been examined at different growth rates and relative crystallographic orientations of the matrix with respect to the reaction interface. The uhriation in auerage particle size of the liquid phase with reaction rate has been determined at one crystallograpIzic orientation of the matrix. On a plot of logarithm of average particle diameter vs logarithm of reaction rate, data points for crystals grown at rates of 10- to 1.0 cm per hr fall near a curve of slobe -0.4. MONOTECTIC reactions in binary alloy systems are reactions of the eutectic class in which, as the system is cooled through the three-phase reaction isotherm, one liquid phase (L) decomposes to a solid phase and another liquid phase (LII).' A partial phase diagram, as taken from Hansen, showing the monotectic reaction in the Bi-Se system is given in Fig. 1. This diagram specifies the monotectic point at 618°C and 72 at. pct Se, and the monotectic reaction products as the intermetallic Bi Se3 and a liquid (LII) which contains approximately 98 at. pct Se. At a lower temperature, 217°C, this liquid may undergo a eutectic reaction in which the reaction products are BizSe3 and crystalline selenium. However, under conditions of rapid cooling, or quenching, from above 217°C, this selenium-rich liquid may be partially retained to room temperature in an amorphous or glassy state. The intermetallic BizSe3 is rhombohedral, of the space group jm;' however, for convenience it is usually represented by a hexagonal struture. A pronounced plane of cleavage, which lies perpendicular to the main axis of the rhombohedral unit cell or parallel to the basal plane of the hexagonal cell, exists in the structure. The usual monotectic reaction product consists of rod-like particles of LII embedded in a single-crystal matrix of BizSe3, although at certain crystallographic orientations of the matrix BizSe3 other more complex shapes are assumed by LII. A similar rod-like, or cylindrical, morphology for the carbide phase has been reported by westbrook7 in the a Cr-Crz3Ce eutectic structure. In this paper the morphological characteristics of the LII particles, as retained to room temperature, have been examined under conditions of varying growth rate and crystallographic orientation of the matrix BizSe3 with respect to the growth direction. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Alloy specimens corresponding to the monotectic composition, 72 at. pct, or 50 w pct Se, were prepared from 99.999 pct pure bismuth and selenium obtained from the American Smelting and Refining Co. The two elements, corresponding to a total specimen weight of approximately 30 g, were encapsulated in 13 mm OD Vycor tubing under a vacuum of 5 x X mm of Hg. The capsules were suspended on a fine platinum wire in a Bridgman-type furnace which exhibited a temperature gradient of

Jan 1, 1963

By J. M. Oblak, R. F. Hehemann, R. H. Goodenow

STUDIES of surface relief and growth kinetics have lead to the concept that widmanstatten ferrite along with upper and lower bainite constitute a continuous series of decomposition products.1-4 Current models4 propose that these products form as plates with a coherent or semicoherent leading edge which propagates at a rate controlled by diffusion of carbon into the surrounding austenite. There are, however, important crystallographic and morphological differences between these products—particularly between upper and lower bainite. For example, upper bainite appears to exhibit a (11lIy orientation habit, whereas lower bainite develops with a more irrational habit near {2251y.5-7 Many of the morphological features of these decomposition products are not yet well-documented. Recent studiess have demonstrated that low-carbon martensites form as sheets of closely spaced needles on {lllly planes while higher-carbon martensites form as plates with {225}? or other orientation habits. The similarity in the crystallography of these two modifications of martensite with upper and lower bainite is striking. Therefore, a study of the morphology of bainite in a series of hypoeutec-toid alloy steels has been initiated to explore these relationships further. The question of immediate interest is whether upper and lower bainite form as plates or needles. A two-surface (approximately perpendicular) metallographic method was employed to study the morphology of bainite in a variety of low and medium alloy steels. Compositions of these steels have been reported elewhere. The behavior of 4340 and 4370 was typical and will be described here. Austenitizing treatments involved 20 min at 2350°F for 4340 and at 2000°F for 4370. Isothermal transformation was conducted in molten-salt baths. Upper bainite was produced at 925°F in the 4340 steel and lower bainite at 575°F in 4370 with transformation times adjusted to produce 10 to 15 pct of the decomposition product. Many of the morphological features of upper bainite have been catalogued in the recent literature.'' The two principal variants observed in the present investigation are illustrated in Fig. l(a). One form appears as long, thin plates or needles and the other as small, frequently irregularly shaped particles. Both variants may occur as isolated forms but more frequently appear in groups as demonstrated in Fig. l(a). Two-surface analysis reveals that these two variants constitute different sections through a single morphological form. To demonstrate this, a number of sections perpendicular to the plane of Fig. l(a) were prepared at various positions along the length of the elongated particles. A section taken at position 1 in Fig. l(a) is presented in Fig. l(b). Here, the dark line represents the edge of the sample and the left-hand portion of this photomicrograph is that from the surface perpendicular to the original plane of polish. Since it was necessary to repolish the original surface after each sectioning, the shape of the bainite particles on this surface, right hand side of Fig. l(b), changes with each sectioning. The disappearance of plate A, Fig. l(a), in Fig. l(b) emphasizes the small cross section of these structures. The group of particles in the lower left-hand

Jan 1, 1964

By J. W. Halley

THE effects of tin on steel have become increasingly important because of the necessity of using poorly detinned scrap, tin cans, and terne plate, in the open hearth. Since a tin can contains about 1.5 per cent tin, it would be possible to have up to 0.75 per cent tin in steel made with a 50 per cent scrap charge. In order to use tin-containing scrap, it is necessary to know the effect of tin on various grades of steel. The following investigation is by no means comprehensive but covers a number of steels in which tin content is important. PUBLISHED WORK A number of investigations of the effects of tin on rolling quality and physical properties have been published. It has been found that tin increases strength and hardness and reduces ductility and notched impact resistance. The decrease in ductility and notched impact resistance becomes more marked as the carbon decreases. McKimm1 found no change in Olsen ductility, Rockwell hardness, yield strength, tensile strength or elongation in cold-reduced strip containing up to 0.124 per cent tin. A tin content of 0.15 per cent gave difficulties in rolling and increased the hardness but 0.21 per cent tin showed no change in properties from material containing very little tin. No explanation of this contradiction is offered. Andrew and Peile2 investigated steels containing 0.01 to 0.25 per cent carbon and up to 0.63 per cent tin. They found an increase in tensile strength of from 100 to 200 lb. per sq. in. for each 0.01 per cent tin on normalized samples. The elongation and reduction of area were decreased and the notched impact resistance was reduced markedly. Quenched and drawn samples did not show embrittling if water-quenched from the draw temperature of 1148°F. (620°C.). They could find no evidence of tin under the microscope. Whitely and Braithwaite3 investigated the effect of tin on rail steel containing 0.55 to 0.06 per cent carbon. They found that 0.08 per cent tin caused a marked decrease in elongation, notched impact resistance and the degree of bend. The tensile strength was increased in some tests and not in others. Bolsover and Barraclough4 investigated the effect of tin up to 0.50 per cent on a 0.35 per cent carbon steel and on several alloy steels with from 0.30 to 0.40 per cent carbon. They found a comparatively uniform decrease in notched impact resistance with increasing tin on quenched and drawn samples. If the samples were quenched from the drawing temperature or reheated to the drawing temperature and quenched, the embrittling was much less severe. Steels containing molybdenum suffered much less embrittlement than other steels. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Effect of Tin on Low-carbon Rimmed Steel Increasing quantities of tin were added to four ingots of a heat of the following ladle analysis: carbon, 0.08 per cent; manganese, 0.39; phosphorus, 0.009; sulphur, 0.025.

Jan 1, 1942

By S. I. Liu

THE effects of strain histories, consisting of several prestrains in opposite directions, on the flow and fracturing characteristics of metals determined in a final test have been investigated previously.'" Such strain histories vary from a single prestrain in tension or compression to the number of strain cycles leading to fatigue failure.' Between these two limits, various strain histories could be visualized and some can be attained readily. One such example is a strain history consisting of a first prestrain in tension of various magnitudes and a second prestrain in compression also of various mag-nitude. In this investigation the strain history was extended to the combination of these two limits, i.e., a single prestrain in tension or compression followed by balanced strain cycles of a selected magnitude e, = k0.12. It was found in this case that only compressive initial prestrains could be investigated with sufficient accuracy.* Such strain histories can be considered also as (low cycle) fatigue tests of a metal subjected to various amounts of cold working. It appears from previous publications that cold working within a wide range of reductions usually raises the un-notched fatigue strength of many metals.'-' This effect, however, has been found to be inconsistent and sometimes reversed for other metals?.7 Furthermore, Ludwik reports that the yield strength of cold-worked specimens may be reduced by cyclic strains, while that of materials without cold work is generally increased in the initial cycles." " In addition to the above tests, a study was made of the effect of intermediate re-solution heat treatment on low cycle fatigue behavior. Such anneals should eliminate the strain hardening induced by the cyclic strains. As far as their effect on the fracture characteristics is concerned, a few previous tests seemed to indicate that the damage resulting from cyclic strains is retained only partially after heat treatment." A further investigation was made in which one specimen was subjected to repeated unbalanced tension cycles in which the strain interval was approximately $ 0.013. This repetition of plastic tension damages the material slightly. This result appears to confirm Ludwik's observations." " Commercial 3/4-in. rod of the aluminum alloy 24ST4 was selected for this investigation. The material was subjected to the following treatments before machining: 1—Re-solution treatment at 920" ± 10°F for 45 min, 2—water quench at room temperature, and 3—aging for four days at room tem-perature.? The treated material then was machined to desired specimen contour and tested. A coolant was used during machining to minimize any artificial aging effects of heating during machining. In some cases the 24ST4 specimens were reheat treated after having been strained. In these cases, the heat treatment was the same as the re-solution heat treatment described above. Procedure As shown in Fig. 1, threaded end specimens with a minimum diameter of 0.266 in. and a contour radius of 2 in. were used for prestraining to an axial compressive strain ranging from 6, = —0.10 to E, = —0.48. For large prestrains, two consecutive corn-

Jan 1, 1952

By J. Wade Watkins, E. S. Mardock

The accurate evaluation of reservoir-performance characteristics in the secondary recovery of petroleum by water flooding requires use of a water tracer that may be injected into water-input wells and detected at oil-production wells to supplement data obtained from core analyses, wellhead tests, and subsurface measurements. Radioactive iodine has been used successfully as a water tracer in field tests to determine: (I) relative rates and patterns of flow of injected water between water-input and oil-production wells and (2) zones of excessive water entry into oil-production wells. Laboratory evaluations of potential water tracers, previous tracer studies, the value of using a radioactive tracer, general field procedures, and the use of surface and subsurface instruments for the detection of the emitted gamma radiation, are summarized. Data from the field tests are presented graphically and discussed in detail. It is concluded that the radioactive-tracer method, using radioactive iodine, may be used successfully to measure either the relative rates and patterns of flow or zones of excessive water entry into wells under conditions of comparatively rapid transit time between wells. INTRODUCTION Extensive use is made of data obtained from core analyses, wellhead tests, fluid characteristics, and subsurface measurements in evaluating the sweep efficiency of water injected into oil sands for the recovery of oil. Theoretical flow rates and patterns may be calculated from those data using radial-flow formulas, if it is assumed that the physical conditions in the productive formation are homogeneous. Unfortunately, homogeneous conditions rarely, if ever, exist in oil-productive formations. The use of a tracer that may be injected into an oil sand and detected quantitatively, or even qualitatively, at offsetting oil-production wells provides basic data that may be used in determining more accurately the subsurface rates and patterns of flow of injected water between wells than is possible by theoretical calculations based on assumed conditions. Consideration of the data obtained by using a water tracer assists in the application of remedial measures to water-input wells, such as plugging of channels, or selective plugging of highly permeable zones, thereby effecting a more uniform flood and a greater ultimate oil recovery. A water tracer should have the following characteristics: (1) low adsorption on solid reservoir material; (2) high solubility in water; (3) low or negligible solubility in crude petroleum; (4) a wide range of solubility of compounds that may be formed by chemical reactions with ions present in reservoir rocks or waters; (5) high detectability in low concentrations by portable apparatus; and (6) general availability at low cost. Additional desirable characteristics are that the tracer should be nonhazardous in nature under normal working conditions and quantitatively detectable in the well bore, as well as at the surface. Review of Previous Tracer Studies The need for a water tracer has been recognized for many years. As far back as 1906, Dole1 described the use of fluorescein in flow-rate studies made in France in 1901. In 1921, Ambrose" discussed in detail the use of organic and inorganic dyes, chlorides, nitrates, and other anions, lithium salts, and the Slichter electrical

Jan 1, 1955

By V. F. Parry, E. O. Wagner

This paper summarizes investigations during 1949 on three pilot plants for drying low-rank fine coal by entrapment in hot gases. Detailed operating results on processing seven coals having moisture ranging from 24 to 62 pet, formulas and data for calculating performance of large units, and general conclusions on the problem of drying fine coal are presented. THIS paper presents a summary of investigations by the Coal Branch of the Bureau of Mines during 1949 on the removal of internal moisture from low-rank coals by processing them in the entrained and fluidized state. A paper on this subject, giving a summary of the early work, was presented at the 1949 AIME annual meeting1 and gave a the- oretical discussion of the time and heat required to dry various sizes of low-rank coal. The investigations on two pilot plants were presented in the foregoing paper. During 1949, three additional pilot plants were built to study phases of the drying problem and to investigate different techniques of handling fine coal in the entrained and fluidized state. The present paper gives operating data on the new units and presents detailed data on the drying of seven coals having bed moisture ranging from 62 to 24 pct. The problem of removing surface moisture from fine coal is principally one of heat exchange and dispersion of the coal particles so that heat can reach the liquid moisture to permit evaporation, and it does not involve the factors of size and time of contact to any great extent. If enough heat can reach the surface of the particles at temperatures higher than 250°F, moisture evaporates almost instantly, and the factors of time and size are of secondary importance compared with the factors of heat balance and dispersion of the coal. Therefore, it does not appear to be necessary to employ a fluidized bed when removing surface moisture, and the most efficient process would be one in which the coal particles are entrained in a hot gas stream of optimum temperature traveling at a velocity that causes the particles to disperse into a low-density phase. When low-rank coals are dried, the fluidized bed is necessary to provide control of time of contact. This is done by adjusting the superficial velocity which controls the density or dispersion of the particles. The density of beds having fluidized properties suitable for drying low-rank coals appears to range from about 5 up to about 15 lb per cu ft. When the density is below 5 lb per cu ft, which represents a low-density phase, optimum conditions for removal of surface moisture should be found, and this requires superficial velocities of about 15 fps. The problem of removing bed moisture from low-rank coals involves consideration of size of coal, temperature, mass flow, heat balance, pressure, time of contact, and method of dispersing the coal in the heating mediums. The experimental work presented here gives data on these factors. Coal sizes up to 1/2 in. x 0 were dried with hot gases having initial temperatures ranging from 1900° to 2400°F. Coal

Jan 1, 1951

By E. O. Wagner, V. F. Parry

This paper summarizes investigations during 1949 on three pilot plants for drying low-rank fine coal by entrapment in hot gases. Detailed operating results on processing seven coals having moisture ranging from 24 to 62 pet, formulas and data for calculating performance of large units, and general conclusions on the problem of drying fine coal are presented. THIS paper presents a summary of investigations by the Coal Branch of the Bureau of Mines during 1949 on the removal of internal moisture from low-rank coals by processing them in the entrained and fluidized state. A paper on this subject, giving a summary of the early work, was presented at the 1949 AIME annual meeting1 and gave a the- oretical discussion of the time and heat required to dry various sizes of low-rank coal. The investigations on two pilot plants were presented in the foregoing paper. During 1949, three additional pilot plants were built to study phases of the drying problem and to investigate different techniques of handling fine coal in the entrained and fluidized state. The present paper gives operating data on the new units and presents detailed data on the drying of seven coals having bed moisture ranging from 62 to 24 pct. The problem of removing surface moisture from fine coal is principally one of heat exchange and dispersion of the coal particles so that heat can reach the liquid moisture to permit evaporation, and it does not involve the factors of size and time of contact to any great extent. If enough heat can reach the surface of the particles at temperatures higher than 250°F, moisture evaporates almost instantly, and the factors of time and size are of secondary importance compared with the factors of heat balance and dispersion of the coal. Therefore, it does not appear to be necessary to employ a fluidized bed when removing surface moisture, and the most efficient process would be one in which the coal particles are entrained in a hot gas stream of optimum temperature traveling at a velocity that causes the particles to disperse into a low-density phase. When low-rank coals are dried, the fluidized bed is necessary to provide control of time of contact. This is done by adjusting the superficial velocity which controls the density or dispersion of the particles. The density of beds having fluidized properties suitable for drying low-rank coals appears to range from about 5 up to about 15 lb per cu ft. When the density is below 5 lb per cu ft, which represents a low-density phase, optimum conditions for removal of surface moisture should be found, and this requires superficial velocities of about 15 fps. The problem of removing bed moisture from low-rank coals involves consideration of size of coal, temperature, mass flow, heat balance, pressure, time of contact, and method of dispersing the coal in the heating mediums. The experimental work presented here gives data on these factors. Coal sizes up to 1/2 in. x 0 were dried with hot gases having initial temperatures ranging from 1900° to 2400°F. Coal

Jan 1, 1951

By Harrison Everett Ashley

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) Slimes are usually defined as all material passing a certain-sized sieve, which is invariably the finest sieve employed by each metallurgist in his tests; 100-mesh and 200-mesh have been taken as the limits by different writers in recent volumes of the Transactions ; 150-mesh is common practice. The reader of the first two volumes of Richards 1 is impressed by the inflexibility with which all grinding-arrangements are praised or condemned according as they make little or much slime. Until recently, one of the principal aims of the mill-man was to keep down the slimes. He was obliged to have separate apparatus for sand- and slime-treatment. The latter was sometimes puzzling and erratic. Often it was found most .economical to omit treatment of the slimes entirely, or to store them in immense basins or heaps, waiting for possible future improvements in methods of treatment. Recently, improved processes of agitation and filtration have made possible the successful extraction of values from many slimes. The tendency, when the metal is exceedingly finely disseminated, is to cut out all sand-treatment and to slime everything. These processes have been almost entirely mechanical in their conception, and it is the object of the present paper to show that certain chemical considerations may greatly hinder or assist their successful operation. It has long been a source of dissatisfaction to chemists that their analyses fail to be of much help to the clay-worker; that it is a matter of common occurrence for clays of closely identical ultimate chemical constitution to show the widest possible divergence in physical properties. * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Ore Dressing (1903).

Aug 1, 1910