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By Dean, R. S.

THE numerous theories of hardening which have been advanced in recent years are all satisfactory in accounting for some of the phenomena observed in hardening metals, but none so far presented account for all of the facts observed. Some years ago one of the authors, R. S. Dean,' presented a theory to account for some of the properties accompanying work hardening. The present paper develops this theory further in the light of recent experimental work and extends it to other forms of hardening. Many of the ideas included have come from the writings and personally communicated thoughts of others. We have attempted to give proper credit in every case, but it is possible that we have not always done so. As an historical basis it is desirable here to review very briefly the hardening theories which have been current. The first comprehensive theory of work-hardening phenomena was due to Sir George Beilby.2 He contributed the idea that with cold work part of the structure of the metal was rendered amorphous and that-it was to this amorphous material that the cold-worked metal owed its difference in properties. According to Beilby's theory this amorphous material was a supercooled liquid and, therefore, had the characteristics of a vitreous material. That such a theory is not capable of explaining the property changes in metals has been repeatedly pointed out. This theory also allowed a slip to take place only once on a given plane, which, as has been pointed out by Jeffries and Archer13 is not consistent with the observed length of an, individual slip and the amount of elongation which can be obtained by wire drawing. The modifications, which have been proposed to this hypothesis to make it coincide with the experimental facts, have to a considerable extent robbed the theory of its clean-cut characteristics. The commonest of these modifications replaces the amorphous phase with an

Jan 1, 1927

By R. W. Heckel, R. A. Tanzilli

Treatment of the finite, diffusion-controlled, two-phase, moving-interface homogenization problem has been carried out by numerical methods for a wide range of input parameters. Solutions have been obtained for planar, cylindrical, and spherical diffusion geometries. The effects of parameters such as the interdiffusion coefficients (concentration-independent) of- both phases, the concentrations (time-independent) of each phase at the interlace, mean composition, initial size of the dissolving- phase, and initial composition of- the two phases are considered. The results are displayed to show both the position of the interjace and the degree of homogenization (expressed in terms of concentration at the matrix phase symmetry boundary) as a function of diffusion time. Typical exaw~ples to which the results may be applied are discussed. A limited number of exact, closed-form solutions to the multiphase, diffusion-controlled, moving-interface problem exists in the literature, e.g., Refs. 1 to 7. The exact, closed-form solutions generally consider the outermost phases to be infinite in extent and also assume an interfacial velocity function. It is through use of such boundary conditions that closed-form solutions are readily obtained. An extensive literature also exists on numerical solutions to the mathematically analogous solidification problem, e.g., Refs. 8 to 12. In addition, a numerical solution involving mass transfer with spherical interfaces and infinite boundaries has recently been carried out.13 A practically important class of diffusion problems exists, however, in which the boundaries of each phase away from the interface are finite. For example the finite boundary condition arises when one sets up a model for analyzing the homogenization behavior of two-component powder compacts in two-phase systems or for studying the solution behavior of precipitates. Although exact, closed-form solutions have as yet not been found to this class of problems, solutions are possible using numerical methods. The purpose of this paper is twofold: 1) to describe a numerical method for treating the two-phase, diffusion-controlled, moving-interface problem involving finite boundaries with planar, cylindrical, and spherical interfaces; 2) to present the results of a parametric study which identifies the role played by each variable appearing in the analytical model. R. A. TANZlLLI,Student MemberAIME,onleaveofabsence from the General Electric Co., Re-entry Systems Department and A. W. HECKEL, Member AIME, are Graduate Student in Materials Engineering, and Professor, Department of Metallurgical Engineering, respectively, Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia, Pa. Manuscript submitted May 6. 1968. IMD MATHEMATICAL MODEL The three geometries analyzed are shown in Fig. 1. For each configuration a symmetry element is shown, across whose boundaries the mass transfer is zero. Mean composition, C, and the characteristic solute-rich phase half-thickness (or radius), 1/2, are the independent variables while the characteristic symmetry element half-thickness, L/2 (measured from solute-rich phase center to the matrix phase plane of zero mass transfer), is a dependent variable. The symmetry element for a planar interface accurately represents a real diffusion situation involving the stacking of symmetry elements of constant size. Because cylindrical and spherical symmetry elements of constant size cannot be stacked to fill space, the meaning of the dimension, L/2, for these situations may be considered in terms of the following approximations: and where NA is the number of parallel cylindrical elements per unit area on a surface normal to the cylinder axes and Nv is the number of spherical elements per unit volume. The model consists of a solute-rich phase matrix phase composite of limited mutual solubility. The concentrations at the interface are assumed constant with time; no assumption of local equilibrium at the interface is necessary except for the case where the

Jan 1, 1969

By Samuel S. M. Chan

The magnetic susceptibilities of some ores and the major rock formations of the Precambrian Belt Supergroup in the Coeur d'Alene mining district were determined both in the laboratory by the use of the Gouy method and in the field with a Bison susceptibility unit. Trace element analysis of the same group of rock samples was also made using the atomic adsorption technique. Results of this preliminary study indicate that some correlation exists between the magnetic susceptibilities and the various rock formations. This may be useful for regional mapping and mineral exploration.

Jan 1, 1974

By C. Land, R. Hultgren

Heat contents of four Cr-Ni alloys were determined in a diphenyl ethev calorimeter. Aside from ferromagnetic effects, Kopp's law of additivity of heat capacities is approximately fol-lowed, in disagreement with earlier results of A. W. Foster. In 1934 Foster1 reported heat-capacity measurements of dilute solutions of chromium in nickel, primarily as a study of the effect of alloying on the ferromagnetic Curie temperature. He found that, apart from the Curie temperature effect, the general level of heat capacities was reduced 10 pct by the addition of 1 pct Cr; 20 pct by the addition of 2 pct Cr. His measurements of pure nickel essentially agreed with accepted values. These results indicate that small amounts of dissolved chromium cause an increase in the Debye temperature of nickel, presupposing a change of frequency of interatomic bonding vibrations which is much larger than should be expected. If Foster's results were verified, therefore, they would have important implications for bonding theory. The only other heat-capacity measurements in this system seem to be those of Taylor and Hinton,' who studied anomalies which they attributed to super-lattice formation at 25 at. pct Cr. At temperatures above the anomaly, Taylor and Hinton found heat capacities at this composition were quite normal, approximately obeying Kopp's law of additivity. EXPERIMENTAL WORK In order to verify or disprove the remarkable results of Foster, the heat contents of four dilute solid solutions of chromiunn in nickel were measured in a diphenyl ether calorimeter. This instrument, described elsewhere,, operates on the principle of the Bunsen ice calorimeter, but uses diphenyl ether as the working substance. Diphenyl ether melts at the convenient temperature of 26.S°C and supplies a more sensitive measure of heat than ice. The hot sample, in an atmosphere of argon, is dropped from a furnace at a measured temperature into a chamber which is surrounded by a mixture of solid and liquid diphenyl ether. The heat from the hot specimen melts some of the solid without chang- ing the temperature of the calorimeter. The amount of solid melted, and therefore the number of calories released by the specimen, is measured from the increase of volume of the mixture, which pushes mercury down a graduated capillary tube. The apparatus has been standardized against the known heat content of pure platinum. Heat loss during the dropping of the specimen was estimated by comparing the heat content of an empty platinum capsule with a solid platinum ball of the same radius and degree of polish of the surface. Repeated tests demonstrate the precision of measurement to be closer than *0.3 pct. Smoothed experimental results are listed in Table I. The tabulated values for pure nickel are taken from kelley, several measurements were made which agreed closely with this tabulation. For chromium, however, no similar agreement was found. The values tabulated were taken from a thorough study of chromium with the diphenyl ether calorimeter which will be published elsewhere.= Suitable plots of the data showed the expected ferromagnetic anomalies in the low-chromium alloys, while the 11 pct alloy shows no ferromagnetic anomaly, but a different, small anomaly below 900°K. This is perhaps the same anomaly found in CrNi, which was once attributed to superlattice formation,' but is probably due to some other cause, such as antifer-

Jan 1, 1960

By H. J. Rose

Sixty-five million net tons of coal were carbonized in the by-product and beehive coke ovens1 of the United States during 1924. This tonnage represented 13.4 per cent. of the bituminous coal which was mined in that year. Table 1 shows production and disposition.2 Table 1.—Production and Disposition of Ocen Coke in 1924 By-product Beehive Total Coal charged into ovens, tons................ 49,061,339 15,914,310 64,975,649 Coke produced (exclusive of screenings and breeze), tons............................. 33,983,568 10,286,037 44,269,605 Average yield of coke, per cent ............. 69.3 6.46 68.9 Disposition of coke, per cent.: Blast furnace.......................... . . 82.6 Foundry............................... . 13.3 6.6 Domestic.............................. . 1.4 6.7 Water gas manufacture and all other uses.. 4.6 . 4.1 Cokes having somewhat different combinations of chemical and physical properties are desired for the various uses listed above, and these properties depend primarily upon the types of coal used. American coals have a wide range of purity and coking quality, and the chief subject of this paper will be the selection of coals for the manufacture of blast furnace, foundry, domestic, and water-gas coke, in by-product coke ovens. It will obviously be necessary to include a discussion of those physical and chemical characteristics that are generally considered essential or desirable for each type of coke. Suitable Coals The examination and development of new sources of coking coal are important because of the irregular and limited distribution of high-grade

Jan 1, 1927

By W. Tempelaar Lietz

The Ten Section oil field is located in the San Joaquin Valley in Kern County, California. about 12 miles southwest of Bakersfield in Township 30 South, Ranges 25 and 26 East. The accumulation is in a low relief anticlinal dome and has a productive area of approximately 2,200 acres. Discovered in 1936 as a result of seismic work, it was the first field on the floor of the Valley to obtain production. It had a small primary gas cap, and since its inception has been produced by depletion with controlled withdrawal from the gas cap to minimize blowthrough. STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY The Ten Section structure is an elongated anticlinal dome with flank dips of only about 7 degrees. A map of the field, now fully developed, and a composite log are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Contours shown on the map are on the top of the first zone, or Marker XA as indicated on the composite log. As shown, the field has a productive closure of only some 350 feet, and there apparently is no faulting in the reservoir. The productive measures in Ten Section are of Upper Miocene age and are known as the Stevens sand. They contain thin, irregular shale or siltstone streaks which vary considerably in stratigraphic position and thickness and apparently are rather discontinuous. As a result, individual sands and shales cannot be correlated over any appreciable area, which makes it difficult to subdivide the sand body into separate zones which are distinct throughout the field. However, there are two fairly persistent siltstone bodies that at the time of development were considered to divide the productive measures into three - zones. The first, or uppermost zone is productive over the entire field and has an average thickness of 180 feet, of which some 65 per cent is sand. It had a primary. gas cap in the crestal area with an areal extent of 930 acres. The second zone has a productive area somewhat smaller than the first zone, but it did not have any original gas cap. It has an average thickness of about 360 feet, of which 55 per cent is sand. The third zone has a very limited areal extent and a maximum productive thickness of 100 feet, of which 80 per cent is sand. Recently, a deeper oil accumulation, termed the "53" sand, was discovered, but it is not discussed in this analysis. In the first and second zones the water table was at 7,980 feet subsea, while in the third zone it was at 8,080 feet subsea. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS Sand Characteristics The Stevens sand in Ten Section is hard and well consolidated, and numerous wells were cored for core analysis. Core data on four representative wells are shown, plotted beside the electric logs in Figs. 3 to 6. The average porosity is 20 per cent, with porosities ranging from 15 to 30 per cent. It is estimated, from cores taken with oil base muds, that the interstitial water content is about 40 per cent. The average weighted permeability is approximately 140, with measured permeabilities ranging from 10 to 3,000 md. As might be expected with practically no correlation of individual sand

Jan 1, 1949

By W. Tempelaar Lietz

The Ten Section oil field is located in the San Joaquin Valley in Kern County, California. about 12 miles southwest of Bakersfield in Township 30 South, Ranges 25 and 26 East. The accumulation is in a low relief anticlinal dome and has a productive area of approximately 2,200 acres. Discovered in 1936 as a result of seismic work, it was the first field on the floor of the Valley to obtain production. It had a small primary gas cap, and since its inception has been produced by depletion with controlled withdrawal from the gas cap to minimize blowthrough. STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY The Ten Section structure is an elongated anticlinal dome with flank dips of only about 7 degrees. A map of the field, now fully developed, and a composite log are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Contours shown on the map are on the top of the first zone, or Marker XA as indicated on the composite log. As shown, the field has a productive closure of only some 350 feet, and there apparently is no faulting in the reservoir. The productive measures in Ten Section are of Upper Miocene age and are known as the Stevens sand. They contain thin, irregular shale or siltstone streaks which vary considerably in stratigraphic position and thickness and apparently are rather discontinuous. As a result, individual sands and shales cannot be correlated over any appreciable area, which makes it difficult to subdivide the sand body into separate zones which are distinct throughout the field. However, there are two fairly persistent siltstone bodies that at the time of development were considered to divide the productive measures into three - zones. The first, or uppermost zone is productive over the entire field and has an average thickness of 180 feet, of which some 65 per cent is sand. It had a primary. gas cap in the crestal area with an areal extent of 930 acres. The second zone has a productive area somewhat smaller than the first zone, but it did not have any original gas cap. It has an average thickness of about 360 feet, of which 55 per cent is sand. The third zone has a very limited areal extent and a maximum productive thickness of 100 feet, of which 80 per cent is sand. Recently, a deeper oil accumulation, termed the "53" sand, was discovered, but it is not discussed in this analysis. In the first and second zones the water table was at 7,980 feet subsea, while in the third zone it was at 8,080 feet subsea. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS Sand Characteristics The Stevens sand in Ten Section is hard and well consolidated, and numerous wells were cored for core analysis. Core data on four representative wells are shown, plotted beside the electric logs in Figs. 3 to 6. The average porosity is 20 per cent, with porosities ranging from 15 to 30 per cent. It is estimated, from cores taken with oil base muds, that the interstitial water content is about 40 per cent. The average weighted permeability is approximately 140, with measured permeabilities ranging from 10 to 3,000 md. As might be expected with practically no correlation of individual sand

Jan 1, 1949

By Frederick Prime

AT the last meeting of the Institute, Mr. A. L. Holley read a paper on "Steel," in which he proposes for it a definition so opposed to the one generally received, as to call for some remarks. Until within the last five or six years there has been no dispute on the subject, and it seems worth while to investigate the matter. For not only does a proper tax on all importations depend on a proper appreciation of the term steel, but it is necessary to know whether steel, or wrought-iron, or homogeneous iron are requisite in all processes of manufacture in which malleable iron is employed, on account of cost, strength, etc. Karsteu* says : " Iron may be obtained, either as an unforgeable, unweldable metal, which melts at a high heat, termed cast-iron; or as a ductile, weldable, soft metal, which can only be melted at the * Karsten, Handbuch der Eisenhüttenkunde, 3d ed., vol. i, p. 6. Berlin, 1841.

Jan 1, 1876

By Albert Sauveur

This paper explains the possibility of using advantageously a boiling solution of sodium picrate to reveal dendritic segregation in steel. The mechanism of the action of the reagent is described. The failure of manganese alone to produce persistent dendritic segregation is also considered. IRON, like other metals, solidifies through the formation of dendritic crystals; iron alloys forming solid solutions, like other solid solutions, solidify likewise through the formation of dendritic crystals. The alloying elements or impurities as well as the inclusions segregate generally in the interstices, or "fillings," between the axes and branches of the dendrites; that is, in the portions last to solidify. This results in dendritic segregation or heterogeneity, which is generally persistent and makes possible the revelation of the dendritic crystallization of the metal through the selective action of a suitable etching reagent.1 For this purpose, a cupric solution, such as Le Chatelier's, is generally used, copper being deposited on the pure, or relatively pure, ferrite present in the axes while the fillings remain free, or relatively free., from copper deposition. The dendritic structure, formed on solidification in a steel containing 0.50 per cent. carbon, 0.37 per cent. manganese, 0.12 per cent. silicon, 0.07 per cent. sulfur, and 0.035 per cent. phosphorus is shown, after treatment with Le Chatelier reagent, in Fig. 1 under a magnification of 8 diameters. Commercial steel always contains inclusions of manganese sulfide, which are located in the fillings of the dendrites. Comstock has shown that boiling sodium picrate imparts a dark coloration to these inclusions. We find that this reagent likewise reveals dendritic segregations in commercial steel, as shown in Fig. 2, under a magnification of 8 diameters, which represents the same spot as that shown in Fig. 1. The fillings

Jan 2, 1924

By T. A. Read, M. S. Wechsler, D. S. Lieberman

A theoretical analysis of the austenite-martensite transformation is presented which predicts the habit plane, orientation relationships, and macroscopic distortions from a knowledge only of the crystal structures of the initial and final phases. THIS paper presents a new theory of the formation of martensite. This theory makes possible the calculation of the austenite planes on which the martensite plates form, the orientation relationship between the austenite and martensite crystal axes, and the macroscopic distortions which are observed. The only input data needed are the crystal structures and lattice parameters of the austenite and martensite. Considerable effort has been devoted over the past thirty years to the development of an understanding of the crystallographic features of martensite reactions. Much of this work has been done on steels and iron-nickel alloys, for which a great deal of data has been accumulated concerning the shape and orientation of the martensite plates, the relative orientations of the austenite and martensite crystal axes, and the observable distortions which result from transformation. These observations are reviewed in refs. 1, 2, and 3. The first major step toward an understanding of these phenomena was made in 1924 by Bain,' who showed that the a body-centered cubic structure can be produced from the 7 face-centered cubic structure by a contraction of about 17 pct in the direction of one of the austenite cube axes and an expansion of 12 pct in all directions perpendicular to it. Since that time, most of the efforts at further interpretation have been made by investigators who have worked from the phenomenological data, incorporating some of the information from the lattice properties, and have sought an analysis into likely deformations which would produce the observed results."- "11 but the three most recent papers on the subject have already been reviewed in some detail." Machlin and Cohenl0 measured the components of the distortion matrix and verified that the habit plane is a plane of zero distortion and rotation for the (259) case. They showed that the measured distortion matrix, when applied to the parent lattice, does not yield the product lattice and hence some inhomogeneous distortion must occur. Frank,u working from the lattice properties and taking some clues from the observations, considered the correspondence of close-packed rows and planes in the austenite and martensite. He predicted substantially the observed lattice relationship and habit plane for certain steels which have a (225) habit. Geisler12 suggested that there is a natural tendency for the habit plane to be a (111) and postulated certain slip processes to account for the fact that the experimentally observed habit plane is irrational and deviates from the assumed one. The present work differs from previous treatments of martensite formation in that it permits calculation of all the major manifestations of the process. Habit plane indices, orientation relationships, and observable distortions are all calculated from a knowledge of the crystal structures of the initial and final phases alone. The calculations contain no adjustable parameters. The agreement found between calculated results and the observations reported in the literature constitutes powerful evidence in favor of the mechanism of martensite formation proposed. The theory is applicable to systems other than steel (as is discussed later in this paper) which exhibit a diffusionless phase change but because of the wide-spread interest in the austenite-martensite transformation, particular attention will be given to the iron-base alloys. For other systems which undergo a similar face-centered cubic to face-centered tetragonal transformation, the mathematical treatment is identical with that presented here. Hence the theory successfully describes the transformation in the indium-thallium alloy.'" Homogeneous Transformation to Martensite The distortion which any homogeneously transforming volume of austenite undergoes in order to become martensite is shown in Fig. 1, as was first suggested by Bain.' (This distortion will hereafter be referred to as the "Bain distortion.") This specification of a contraction along one cube axis ;ombined with an expansion in all directions perpendicular to this axis describes what is properly called the "pure" distortion associated with this transformation. The distinction between a "pure" and an "impure" distortion plays an important part in the discussion which follows. A "pure" distortion is characterized by the existence of at least one set of orthogonal axes fixed in the body which are not rotated by the distortion. (These are called the "principal axes" of the distortion.) No such set of axes exists in the case of an "impure" distortion. On the other hand, an impure distortion can always be represented as the result of a pure distortion combined with the rotation of the specimen as a rigid body. For a given impure distortion the corresponding pure distortion

Jan 1, 1954

By N. V. Melnikov, L. N. Marchenko

The latest theoretical and experimental study of physical processes initiated by explosions in solid media have made it possible to obtain a deeper insight into the mechanism of the energy transfer to ambient rock from char es of explosives interspersed with various air gaps. As shown in (17, high explosive action causes excessive fragmentation of medium in the vicinity of the charge, while expansion of the process into the massif is negligible. A theoretical outline of a more rational application of explosion energy was given with a view of obtaining more uniform fragmentation of rock convenient for loading and transportation. The proposed idea proven by experimental study consisted of the possibility of explosion control based on redistribution of explosion energy. Practical realization of the above idea was proposed (1) involving charges with air gaps for rock fragmentation. Since the Rolla Symposium on Mining Research (USA, 1961) (2), borehole charges with air gaps have become common practice. This method of rock blasting is applied in open cast and underground mines working the hardest and viscous, hard, medium hard and soft rocks (ore, quartzites, granites, 1 imes tones, sandstones, coals, etc.) as well as at enterprises for extraction of building materials and raw chemical minerals of any strength. Application of charges with air gaps results in an increase of the degree and uniformity of fragmentation (up to 94 percent of the blasted rock mass consists of fragments not exceeding 400 mm), the average fragment size decreases by 1.5-2 times and the amount of lumps is reduced by 2-10 times (in some cases there are no lumps at all ). Besides, the amount of operation for filling boreholes with tamping material is reduced, the specific consumption of explosives

Jan 1, 1971

By Roscoe W. Stensrud

Marcona Mining Company operations are located 500 kilometers south of Lima, Peru, on the Pacific Coast, at approximately 15º-22' latitude south and 75º-11' longitude west. The terrain is sandy rolling hills ranging from sea level at the coast and rising sharply (escarpment) to an elevation of 800 meters at the mine area. The climate is arid and windy with a moderate year-round temperature, ideal for a year-round mining operation. San Juan, a new and modern community of 14,000 inhabitants and developed by Marcona, houses the working forces and their families.

Jan 11, 1968

By C. A. Stewart

I. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL STATEMENT OF RESULTS. The field-work upon which this paper is based was done in the summer of 1910, and was made possible by the courtesy of the Imperial Copper Co., which gave me access to its property. For their kindness in this respect I wish to express my thanks to W. F. Staunton and Meade Goodloe. Moreover,. B. F. Smith and G. B. Gentry, mining engineers in the employ of the company, gave invaluable assistance by placing maps,. etc., at my disposal, and by discussing with me the problems of the district; and it is a great pleasure to acknowledge this indebtedness to them. In order that the significance of some of the details that follow may be better appreciated at first reading, a general outline of the conclusions reached is given here. In the Silverbell mining-district a series of Palaeozoic limestone blocks is completely surrounded by post-Palaeozoic igneous rocks, intruded in the following order: alaskite, alaskite-porphyry, biotite-granite, andesite, and quartz-porphyry. The biotite-granite is believed to represent a differentiation of the. magma from which the alaskite-porphyry came ; and this conclusion-has an important hearing on the origin of the ores. The intrusion of both alaskite-porphyry and biotite-granite was followed by the emission of magmatic waters, which sericitized and silicified the alaskite-porphyry and granite, and produced in the limestone, by the addition to it of silica, iron, and alumina, great masses of garnet, quartz, and wollastonite. Following close upon these solutions came metal-bearing magmatic waters, which impregnated porphyry, granite, and alas kite with cupriferous pyrite, and deposited in the garnet zones chalcopyrite and copper-bearing pyrite that make important bodies of contact-metamorphic ores. Secondary enrichment has taken place in the disseminated ores in the igneous rocks,. raising their copper-content to 2 per cent. in some cases,. and extensive drilling has been undertaken to block out these deposits. East of the contact-metamorphic deposits there is a fissure-vein of lead-silver ore in the quartz-porphyry. This rock is distinctly younger than the alaskite-porphyry and the granite; and the lead-silver ores belong, therefore, to a period of mineralization distinctly later than the copper-deposition.

May 1, 1912

Paper withdrawn from publication September 8,1977, after book was printed. Pages 258.272 are therefore omitted.

Jan 1, 1977

By R. F. Domagala, M. Hansen, D. J. McPherson

On the basis of metallographic analysis, incipient melting data, thermal analysis work, and X-ray diffraction, phase relationships in the 0 to 50 atomic pct alloy content were carefully resolved. Phase relationships in the higher alloy content regions were outlined. A single intermediate phase, peritectically formed, of the form ZrX2 was established in each system. A eutectic and a eutectoid were found in the zirconium-rich region of both systems. Appreciable solubility of molybdenum and wolfram was found in ß zirconium, but only a slight solubility in a zirconium. PREVIOUS work on these systems was limited to X-ray investigations of the intermediate phases1, 2 and preliminary surveys of the zirconium-rich alloys." The diagrams presented were determined principally by metallographic, thermal analysis, and incipient melting techniques. In accordance with the Atomic Energy Commission contract requirements, phase relationships up to 50 atomic pct molybdenum or wolfram were carefully resolved, while only a limited amount of work was done to outline the 50 to 100 atomic pct alloy region. A description and analysis of the metals used in the preparation of alloys for this study are included in Table I. A "low-hafnium" zirconium crystal bar, produced by the decomposition of a volatile iodide onto a hot filament, was employed for these studies. Westinghouse "Grade 3" crystal bar was used for all alloys. The zirconium, as received, was coated with corrosion product from a standard autoclave test by which its grade designation is determined. This was removed by a sand-blasting and HF-HNO, pickling technique developed by the Atomic Energy Commission. The bars were cold rolled to approximately 1/32 in. sheet, pickled for iron removal, sheared to 1/4 in. squares, washed with acetone, and stored for furnace charge. Molybdenum sheet. 0.003 in. thick, 0.001 to 0.005 in. wolfram wire, and M in. wolfram rod crushed to granular form, from Fansteel Metallurgical Corp., were used as alloying stock. Melting Procedure A nonconsumable electrode arc furnace identical to that described in detail by Hansen et al.4 was used. The source of power for melting Zr-Mo alloys was a 400 amp dc welding generator, while a 900 amp dc generator was used for preparing Zr-W alloys. Electrode tips of the same material as the alloy addition were employed in both systems, i.e., molybdenum tips were used for Zr-Mo alloys, and wolfram tips for Zr-W alloys. This precluded any possible electrode contamination during arc melting. Ingots of 20 to 30 g of Zr-Mo alloys were melted under high purity helium in the cavity of a copper block insert in a spun copper crucible. Homogeneity was insured by remelting all ingots four to six times without opening the furnace. Due to the large difference between the melting points of wolfram and zirconium, direct melting of the charged metals as above generally yielded ingots containing unmelted wolfram particles. This was overcome, after many variations in technique, by melting a pure wolfram charge at high power levels (700 to 900 amp) and slowly adding zirconium to form a master alloy. Such master alloys were sectioned and remelted several times, then crushed to serve as melting stock for alloys of lower wolfram content. Master alloys containing 26, 50, 52, 70, and

Jan 1, 1954

By W. A. Ver Wiebe

Spurred on by the very high demands for new crude supplies resulting from World War 11, the oil men of Kansas strained every effort in 1943 to find as many new pools as possible. In all, 1761 test wells were drilled, ,of which 895 were successful in finding new oil supplies and 32 in finding new gas supplies. The total number of wildcat wells drilled in Kansas was 577, including the so-called "extension wildcats," which are located less than 2 miles from production. As a result of the very determined effort to find new oil reserves, 49 of the wildcat test wells found new oil pools in western Kansas and 7 found new oil pools in eastern Kansas. There were 289 rank wildcat tests, and among these 28 were successful ventures. They are responsible for 26 of the new oil pools recorded for the year and 2 of the new gas pools recorded. The ratio of dry holes to producing wells among such rank wildcats is thus approximately 10 to I (289 dry and 28 good). This compares with a ratio of II: I in 1942 and 6:1 in 1941; the same in 1940 and 5:Iin 1939. With nearly all wells flowing to their maximum economic capacity, the total production for Kansas during 1943 reached a new high; that is, 107,700,000 bbl., compared with 97,000,000 during the previous year. Similarly, the amount of gas sold during 1943 made a new high point on the production curve. The total amount was 122 billion cubic feet, compared with about 98 1/2 billion cubic feet for the year previous. As usual, the large Hugoton field of south- western Kansas accounted for approximately half of the total gas production. Highlights of the Year Despite the fact that 56 new pools were found in Kansas during 1943, it must be admitted that the future reserves of the state have not been increased greatly. Most of the new pools seem to be of minor value, although it is admittedly impossible to gauge the future production of any pool in Kansas with any exactitude. Judging by the later performance of some of the pools found in 1942 and in 1941, less than five of the new pools are likely to make any great contribution to the state's future oil reserves. Taking up the counties of Kansas in alphabetical order, the following statements summarize the highlights of the year. In Graham County, the Morel pool was extended to the southeast and this pool now promises to become one of the important pools of western Kansas. Several of the older wells have already contributed more than I000,000 bbl. of oil, and such a figure is considered very satisfactory in Kansas. In McPherson County, important new reserves were found by persistent drilling in township 17 S., R. I. W., the most northeastern township of the county. Many new wells in older pools and discovery wells in new pools make this region look promising. The Lindsborg pool, which had a sensational revival during 1942, was also extended in a number of directions and has now become a rather large producing area with a fairly high future potential capacity.

Jan 1, 1944

By W. A. Ver Wiebe

Spurred on by the very high demands for new crude supplies resulting from World War 11, the oil men of Kansas strained every effort in 1943 to find as many new pools as possible. In all, 1761 test wells were drilled, ,of which 895 were successful in finding new oil supplies and 32 in finding new gas supplies. The total number of wildcat wells drilled in Kansas was 577, including the so-called "extension wildcats," which are located less than 2 miles from production. As a result of the very determined effort to find new oil reserves, 49 of the wildcat test wells found new oil pools in western Kansas and 7 found new oil pools in eastern Kansas. There were 289 rank wildcat tests, and among these 28 were successful ventures. They are responsible for 26 of the new oil pools recorded for the year and 2 of the new gas pools recorded. The ratio of dry holes to producing wells among such rank wildcats is thus approximately 10 to I (289 dry and 28 good). This compares with a ratio of II: I in 1942 and 6:1 in 1941; the same in 1940 and 5:Iin 1939. With nearly all wells flowing to their maximum economic capacity, the total production for Kansas during 1943 reached a new high; that is, 107,700,000 bbl., compared with 97,000,000 during the previous year. Similarly, the amount of gas sold during 1943 made a new high point on the production curve. The total amount was 122 billion cubic feet, compared with about 98 1/2 billion cubic feet for the year previous. As usual, the large Hugoton field of south- western Kansas accounted for approximately half of the total gas production. Highlights of the Year Despite the fact that 56 new pools were found in Kansas during 1943, it must be admitted that the future reserves of the state have not been increased greatly. Most of the new pools seem to be of minor value, although it is admittedly impossible to gauge the future production of any pool in Kansas with any exactitude. Judging by the later performance of some of the pools found in 1942 and in 1941, less than five of the new pools are likely to make any great contribution to the state's future oil reserves. Taking up the counties of Kansas in alphabetical order, the following statements summarize the highlights of the year. In Graham County, the Morel pool was extended to the southeast and this pool now promises to become one of the important pools of western Kansas. Several of the older wells have already contributed more than I000,000 bbl. of oil, and such a figure is considered very satisfactory in Kansas. In McPherson County, important new reserves were found by persistent drilling in township 17 S., R. I. W., the most northeastern township of the county. Many new wells in older pools and discovery wells in new pools make this region look promising. The Lindsborg pool, which had a sensational revival during 1942, was also extended in a number of directions and has now become a rather large producing area with a fairly high future potential capacity.

Jan 1, 1944

By Dell P. Williams, Howard G. Nelson

The tensile behavior of magnesium single crystals at a temperature of 26º ± 2ºC was investigated at varying pressure levels from 760 to 8 X 10-8 tow. For crystals deformed at a constant linear strain rate of 0.061 min-1. there was no apparent effect of the vacuum environment down to 10-8 torr. However, from a vacuum of 10-5 torr down to the lowest pressure attained (8 x 10-8 tor,), the effect of the vacuum environment was to increase the strain at the end of the first linear (or easy-glide) stage and to decrease the slope of this stage; the magnitude of this effect was found to be dependent on pressure. The slope of the second linear stage was also decreased at the lower pressure levels; however, this effect appears to be caused primarity by the vacuum effect on the first linear stage. The magnitude of the vacuum-environmrnt effect was also found to be dependent upon strain rate. The reduction in flow stress at 5 x 10-8 torr, as compared to the stress in air, was obserced to be about 10 pct for a strain rate of 0.0250 min-' and 70 pct for a strain rate of 0.67 min-1. No systematic effect of pressure on the critical resolvled shear stress was observed. The data interpreted in terms of a modified form of Mott's work-hardening mechanism for hexagonal metals. It has long been known that surface conditions influence the mechanical behavior of materials. Roscoe 1 demonstrated the importance of surface conditions on mechanical behavior by testing cadmium crystals with oxide layers. He found that the "apparent" critical resolved shear stress for cadmium was increased approximately 2.5 times by the presence of an oxide layer 1000 atoms thick. The magnitude of this effect was dependent on film thickness with crystals having films less than 20 atoms thick still showing a definite increase. This observed strengthening could not be attributed to any strength of the oxide film because of 1) the thinness of the films and 2) an observed increase in the flow stress as deformation proceeded. Harper and cottrel12 obtained similar results on zinc crystals which had been etched and steamed to give artificially thick oxide films. However, in the course of this study, they also carefully examined the very early stages of plastic flow for zinc crystals which in one case had been electrolytically polished and in the other had been lightly etched to produce a thin film. They then found that the critical resolved shear stress for both surface treatments of the crystals was actually identical but that the etched crystal exhibited a much more rapid initial hardening rate. This had not been noted previously. This result indicated that, in fact, the film caused an increase in the stress for continuation of slip, rather than for the initiation of slip. Lipsett and King3 investigated the effect of evaporated gold films on the plastic behavior of cadmium single crystals. For large angles (=75 deg) between the specimen axis and the normal to the slip plane, they found that the stress-strain curve of the coated specimen always lies above that for a clean specimen. The shear strain at the end of the first linear stage was greater in clean specimens than in coated specimens and the slope of the second linear stage was

Jan 1, 1965

By Alec M. Crowell, J. W. Sanders

While the production of crude oil and condensate in South Arkansas increased only 1.7 per cent over the 1940 figure, complete utilization of gas produced with the oil and condensate, and heretofore wasted, was beginning to be evidenced. There were 26,229,264 bbl. of oil and condensate produced in South Arkansas during 1941, as against 25,790,380 bbl. for the year 1940. (Fig. I.) Since 1936, deep producing sands have been discovered in 18 fields and during that period only 40 per cent of the total state production has come from Upper Cretaceous formations while 60 per cent came from the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic formations. The gas produced with crude oil and condensate from the latter formation contains large quantities of hydrogen sulphide, the maximum being 6900 grains per 100 cu. ft. in the Patton pool of Lafayette County. Gas Utilization During the latter part of 1940 and the early part of 1941, pilot plants were placed in operation to determine whether the hydrogen sulphide and deleterious material in South Arkansas gases could be removed economically. The Federal Government desired to build a large aluminum plant in the Ouachita Valley and was seeking cheap fuel for the generation of electricity. The fact that the gases were produced with appreciable quantities of crude oil and condensate made it available at a very low price, since the state's conservation law prohibits the flaring of any gas. As a result of these experiments the first large-scale unit for the processing of gases containing hydrogen sulphide was placed in operation on Sept. I, 1941. The plant is in the Magnolia oil field, Columbia County. It processes residue gas from the Shell Oil Company's gasoline plant in that field and also raw gas from the Village field, 6 miles east of the Magnolia field. The gas entering the desulphuri-zation unit is laden with approximately 1400 grains of hydrogen sulphide per 100 cu. ft. and is stripped to a content of 4 grains per 100 cu. ft. The capacity of the plant is 15 million cu. ft. of gas treated daily under a pressure of 160 lb. per sq. in. The cost of treatment, exclusive of depreciation, is appreciably less than I per 1000 cubic feet. Two other plants of much greater capacity have been announced and priorities have been granted, which should bring the total amount of gas treated to 150 million cu. ft. daily. The gas to be treated will have a maximum hydrogen sulphide content of 4500 grains per 100 cu. ft. and will be processed under a pressure of 600 lb. per sq. in. These developments are something entirely new in field practice for the industry. The fact that this heretofore wasted gas is available at very low cost has led to the location of some eight war industries within the state, in addition to the alu-minum plant. Recovery OF Sulphur The Susearch Corporation and the Southern Acid and Sulphur Co. placed in operation during 1941 pilot plants to de-

Jan 1, 1942

By Alec M. Crowell, J. W. Sanders

While the production of crude oil and condensate in South Arkansas increased only 1.7 per cent over the 1940 figure, complete utilization of gas produced with the oil and condensate, and heretofore wasted, was beginning to be evidenced. There were 26,229,264 bbl. of oil and condensate produced in South Arkansas during 1941, as against 25,790,380 bbl. for the year 1940. (Fig. I.) Since 1936, deep producing sands have been discovered in 18 fields and during that period only 40 per cent of the total state production has come from Upper Cretaceous formations while 60 per cent came from the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic formations. The gas produced with crude oil and condensate from the latter formation contains large quantities of hydrogen sulphide, the maximum being 6900 grains per 100 cu. ft. in the Patton pool of Lafayette County. Gas Utilization During the latter part of 1940 and the early part of 1941, pilot plants were placed in operation to determine whether the hydrogen sulphide and deleterious material in South Arkansas gases could be removed economically. The Federal Government desired to build a large aluminum plant in the Ouachita Valley and was seeking cheap fuel for the generation of electricity. The fact that the gases were produced with appreciable quantities of crude oil and condensate made it available at a very low price, since the state's conservation law prohibits the flaring of any gas. As a result of these experiments the first large-scale unit for the processing of gases containing hydrogen sulphide was placed in operation on Sept. I, 1941. The plant is in the Magnolia oil field, Columbia County. It processes residue gas from the Shell Oil Company's gasoline plant in that field and also raw gas from the Village field, 6 miles east of the Magnolia field. The gas entering the desulphuri-zation unit is laden with approximately 1400 grains of hydrogen sulphide per 100 cu. ft. and is stripped to a content of 4 grains per 100 cu. ft. The capacity of the plant is 15 million cu. ft. of gas treated daily under a pressure of 160 lb. per sq. in. The cost of treatment, exclusive of depreciation, is appreciably less than I per 1000 cubic feet. Two other plants of much greater capacity have been announced and priorities have been granted, which should bring the total amount of gas treated to 150 million cu. ft. daily. The gas to be treated will have a maximum hydrogen sulphide content of 4500 grains per 100 cu. ft. and will be processed under a pressure of 600 lb. per sq. in. These developments are something entirely new in field practice for the industry. The fact that this heretofore wasted gas is available at very low cost has led to the location of some eight war industries within the state, in addition to the alu-minum plant. Recovery OF Sulphur The Susearch Corporation and the Southern Acid and Sulphur Co. placed in operation during 1941 pilot plants to de-

Jan 1, 1942