Search Documents

By David R. Poirier

Activity data of carbon as a function of both temperature and composition throughout the stable austenite range is correlated by mearts of an equation derived from a quasi-chemical model. The carbon activity data of austmite for temperatures between 800° and 1200°C are utilized in conjunction with the activity of carbon calculated for the y solidus using the activity of carbon in liquid iron and published austenite-liquid equilibria. The results agree very well with Chip-man's correlation; however, a small difference in the activity of carbon in the high-temperature range of the austenite field is evident. Excellent agreement is found for the heat of solution of graphite in infinitely dilute austenite; from this study the value is 10,550 cal as compared with Chipman's value of 10,680 cal. AS part of a program to study microsegregation in dendritic solidification of ternary Fe-C-Cr alloys, it was desirable to be able to describe the equilibria between austenite and liquid iron in Fe-C-Cr alloys. In this regard, it was necessary to correlate existing data on the activity of carbon in Fe-C austenite as a function of both temperature and composition. At that time, Chipman's analysis1 of the thermodynamics of binary Fe-C austenite was not available. It will be shown that this study and Chipman's study agree rather well throughout the stable austenite range of temperature and composition; however, some small differences appear at temperatures greater than the eutectic temperature. Benz and Elliott 2 presented isoactivity lines for austenite superimposed on their revised Fe-C phase diagram. Using an expression from Darken and Gury 3 representing Smith's4 activity data between 800" and 1000°C, they found that the activities extrapolated above 1000°C to the solidus did not agree with the activities determined from the corresponding liquidus compositions. It is the purpose of the following argument to reconcile carbon activity data of austenite with the activity in liquid Fe-C alloys as determined by Rist and Chipman. 5 In addition, a simple analytical expression is sought for computational convenience. ACTIVITY DATA OF CARBON IN ZRON Fig. 1 shows the activity of carbon in Fe-C austenite as determined by Smith, 4 Schenck and Kaiser, 6 Scheil et a1.,7 and Bungardt et al.' The lines are merely drawn to separate the data into the respective isotherms. These data are inadequate to determine the activity of carbon at temperatures greater than 1200°C. The activity coefficient in Fe-C liquid alloys was assumed by Rist and chipmans to obey the following

Jan 1, 1969

By D. Turnbull, J. H. Hollomon, J. C. Fisher

UNDERSTANDING of the diffusion problem has recently been furthered by the analysis of Birchenall and Mehl.1 They pursued the problem of the variation of the diffusion coefficient with composition for non-ideal solid solutions. Their analysis follows the tradition of Wagner,2 Jost,3 Dehlinger,4 and Darken,' who assumed the net flux of dif¬fusing material to be proportional to the gradient of a quantity related to free energy. The basic assumption in Birchenall and Mehl's formulation of the problem is that the net flux of diffusing material is proportional to a thermodynamic activity gradient. To estimate the applicability of the derived relations, they corrected the diffusion coefficients of carbon in austenite by utilizing Smith's' activity data for carbon, and the diffusion coefficients for zinc in copper with activity data computed from the vapor pressure measurements of Hargreaves.7 The corrected coefficients for carbon were virtually independent of carbon concentration. For the diffusion of zinc in copper a moderate variation of diffusion coefficient with concentration remained after the correction. The problem of diffusion can be formulated in another way than that used by Birchenall and Mehl. The method is that of chemical rate theory and has been used by Eyring and his coworkers8,9 as well as by Eyring and Zwolinski10 in a discussion to Birchenall and Mehl's paper. As yet the method has not been applied to substitutional solid solutions. On the basis of their assumptions, Eyring and Zwolinski derived a relation between the diffusion coefficient and activity that is identical with that of Dehlinger and Darken but which does not correct for the variation of the diffusion coefficient with concentration as well as does the relation derived by Birchenall and Mehl. It was thought that the theory of diffusion would be more complete if the inconsistency between the two analyses could be rationalized and if diffusion in substitutional alloys were analyzed on the basis of the concepts of the chemical rate theory. CHEMICAL RATE THEORY According to the theory of absolute reaction rates8 the reaction [A,+A2+ ... +.A;->X,+X2 +...+X; EqI] is viewed as taking place in two steps. First the reactants A1, A2, . . . A[i] combine to form an activated complex M with which they are in equilibrium; [A, + A2 + .. . + Ai = M. Eq 2] Second the activated complex decomposes to give the products X1, X2. . .. X[j]; [M->X1+X2+ ... +.X;. Eq3] It has been shown8 that the number of activated complexes decomposing per unit volume per unit time is given by the expression† [kT]

Jan 1, 1948

By Irving H. Wentworth

The little town of San Nicolás, Tamaulipas, Mexico, lies approximately 60 miles east of Linares, situated in the State of Nuevo Leon, and 150 miles SE. of Monterey, as shown in the sketch-map, Fig. 1. The place is reached from Monterey by the Tampico train as far as Linares, a distance of 92 miles, and then by coach the rest of the way. It is situated in a narrow valley between low hills, the houses forming one main street and a plaza. It is peopled by about 500 inhabitants. The climate is temperate, the thermometer ranging from 90" in summer to a few degrees below freezing-point in winter; but this severe weather only lasts a day or two at a time, when the " northers " blow. There are no streams in the vicinity, but water sufficient for the use of the people is obtained from wells. The rainfall is about the same as that in the rest of NE. Mexico. The rainy months are July, August, and September. The rest of the year is practically dry, with an occasional showery day or two during the winter, when a " norther " is blowing. Timber is abundant in many localities. There are two varieties of oak, besides mesquite, ebony, "maguira," "patol," and a number of other kinds of trees indigenous to this region. I. History. On the discovery of the silver-lead bearing veins occurring in this district, the mining-camp of San Nicolás was founded in 1767 by the Spaniards, and numerous mines were opened and worked for a distance of about 3 miles east and 5 miles west of the town. At the western extremity and near the Car-rolefia mine, a small town called San Pedro was huilt. The

Jan 1, 1913

By S. A. Montague

Mica can claim a considerably greater importance than would be assumed from its comparatively small dollar volume, which came to about $37,000,000 for the United States industry as a whole in 1957. Mica is one of the strategic minerals. We must depend on imports from distant sources for virtually all of our requirements of high grade block and all of our mica splittings. Mica is essential and indispensable for vacuum tubes and high-performance condensers, two electronic components which are vital military necessities besides being nearly indispensable to civilization today. Composition and Properties Mica is the general name for a group of some nine different minerals, two of which, muscovite and phlogopite, are the minerals used by the mica industry as its raw material. Several of the other varieties are commercially useful-vermiculite, * used for heat insulation in expanded form, and lepidolite, used as an ore of lithium while the others-biotite, roscoelite lepidomelane, paragonite and zinnwaldite have little or no commercial importance. Biotite frequently occurs as an undesirable impurity in muscovite. Table 1 lists various properties and other data concerning muscovite and phlogopite. Chemically, mica is a complex silicate of sodium, potassium and aluminum. Most varieties of muscovite are higher in sodium, and of phlogopite in magnesium. There are no important uses of mica where the chemical analysis is important, except that in some uses of ground mica, the content of iron oxide present as an impurity must be kept to a very low limit. Muscovite occurs in a range of color from the so-called India "ruby" which is more closely a pinkish brown, to light and dark green, with numerous other intermediate shades. Ruby color is usually preferred by industry, especially in the better qualities. When split very thin the color in most [ ] micas disappears. Muscovite mica is frequently found containing black and red "stain" as a homogeneous part of the books or sheets. In most cases this stain or impurity is magnetite

Jan 1, 1960

By C. R. Ince

THE term "differential flotation" is used to denote a flotation operation in which separation is effected between two or more minerals of the same class; e. g., lead sulfide from zinc sulfide, pyrite from blende, chalcopyrite from pyrite, chalcopyrite from blende. At present, so far as published work shows, there seem to be two theories as to the mechanics of differential flotation. The earlier and more generally accepted theory is that the so-called depressing agents alter the surface of one or more of the sulfides in the ore, either by chemical action or adsorption, so that it is no longer amenable to flotation, but that these depressed sulfides can be revived, after the unaffected sulfide has been floated, by reagents which react chemically with the altered surface and make it amenable to flotation. More recently, Professor Taggart1 has advanced the theory that slime adsorption is an important factor in differential flotation. He believes that, with the proper use of a class of agents, which he calls .dispersion agents and which include practically all the depressing agents, one can cause the slime to adsorb differentially on sulfide surfaces. A gangue-slime coated sulfide surface will act as a gangue particle and will not float. If, subsequently, an agent that will remove the gangue-slime coating is added, the sulfide again assumes its original surface and can be floated as an ordinary sulfide. This-is the basis of the slime theory of differential flotation. Timber Butte mill at Butte, Mont., is a typical lead-zinc flotation concentrator. Neihart ore, chosen for investigation in this work, is one of the custom ores treated at that mill. Practice at Timber Butte mill in February, 1928, was as follows: A combined lead-zinc concentrate was first made using 0.2 lb. per ton on the ore of potassium xanthate and 0.03 lb. per ton of Cleveland Cliffs oil after 1.5 lb. per ton of lime and 1 lb. per ton of calcium chloride has been added just before the ball mill. The concentrate was then thickened to 70 per cent. solids. Potassium cyanide to the amount of 0.3 lb. per ton and zinc sulfate in the quantity of 0.5 lb. per ton were added to the thickened pulp and the whole

Jan 1, 1929

By M. J. Marcinkowski, R. M. Fisher

The flow stress-grain size relationship has been determined at room temperature in both a disordered and a fully ordered FeCo for plastic strains up to 30 pct. The results are in agreement with a Hall-Petch relation of the type given by Of =a,+kd-1/2 where of is the flour stress and a, increases mono-tonically with increasing strain to a maximum value which is much higher for the ordered than for the disordered alloy. The slope, k, is found to increase FOLLOWING the original work of Halll and petch relating the effect of grain size to the lower yield stress of iron and steel, it has been generally found that the yield stress oy.s. of polycrystalline metals with strain to a maximum and then decrease for both ordered and disordered alloys. However, k for the ordered alloy is in general higher than that for the disordered alloy and the critical strain for k max somewhat larger. All of these observations can be satisfactorily accounted for quantitatively and in some cases semiquantitatively by using a slip band-grain boundary intersection model, and by taking note of the fact that, in general, moss slip, while quite common in the disordered alloy, is extremely difficult in the ordered alloy. obeys a relation of the form oy.s.=a0+kd-1/2 [1] where a, and k are constants and d is the mean grain diameter. For convenience, and in accord with prevailing custom, Eq. [I] will be referred to simply as the Petch relation. Tjerkstra3 and Armstrong, Codd, Douthwaite, and petch4 showed that the flow stress af of iron or steel measured at strains of up to at least 20 pct also obeyed a relationship of the type given by Eq. (11. The latter investigators have also shown that Eq. [I] applies to fcc and hcp metals and alloys.

Jan 1, 1965

By Edward Saibel, W. T. Lankford

DURING the course of an investigation of the plastic flow of aluminum aircraft sheet under combined loads, several problems arose in which analyses of the conditions leading to unstable plastic flow were needed. In order to provide these analyses, and in the hope of attaining a better understanding of the general problem of unstable plastic flow, the present study was undertaken. It is well known that unstable plastic flow is associated with a form of mechanical instability frequently observed during the plastic deformation of ductile metals. This instability is characterized by the fact that, at its onset, plastic straining will proceed at a constant magnitude of the externally applied forces. It is further typical that the resulting unstable flow is generally accompanied by the formation of a neck, a local bulging, or some other form of heterogeneous deformation. Perhaps the most familiar example of unstable plastic flow to the metallurgist is the formation of the neck in the ordinary tension test. It is well known that in this test most metals exhibit a maximum in the externally applied load, followed by the process commonly referred to. as "necking down." Instability in the simple tension test has been frequently discussed and numerous investigators 1,2.3,12 have derived the criterion for instability in terms of a critical rate of strain hardening. It is the purpose of the present study to extend the criterion for unstable flow to the more general case where the body undergoing flow is subjected to combined loads. It is hoped that the problems considered will provide a more consistent picture of the general features of this important form of mechanical instability. The most practical implications of instability in plastic flow arise in connection with sheet metal forming operations. In the formation of a great many sheet metal parts, the deformations are produced primarily by stretching. If the conditions which lead to unstable flow are fulfilled in such a formation, and if the resultant instability leads to a pronounced localization of flow, then the useful limit of ductility of the material will have been reached. It is also essential that the effects of instability be taken into consideration in any study of the plastic flow and rupture of metals under combined stresses. In general, when unstable plastic flow is initiated, straining becomes localized, the geometry of the test specimen changes, and the state of stress in that portion of the specimen undergoing plastic flow is no longer under external control. In many past studies of the effects of combined stresses on flow and rupture, account has not been taken of the fact that, although a given test may be started under constant

Jan 1, 1947

By D. J. McAdam, G. W. Geil, D. H. Woodard, W. D. Jenkins

.In a series of papers, the authors and their associates have shown that the resistance of a metal to fracture is a function of all three principal stresses. Consequently since a technical cohesion limit is defined as the technically deter-minable resistance to fracture under a specific stress system, the technical cohesive strength comprises an infinite number of technical cohesion limits corresponding to the infinite number of possible combinations of the principal stresses. As shown in the previous papers, the technical cohesive strength increases with plastic deformation, with decrease in temperature, and with increase in the strain rate. The technical cohesion limit, therefore, is affected by the same factors that affect the flow stress,$ namely, the stress system, plastic deformation, temperature, and the strain rate. The effect of each of these factors on the fracture stress is qualitatively the same as its effect on the flow stress. The effect of any of the factors may be represented by a curve of cohesion limits, although only one point on the curve may represent actual fracture. Since the term "fracture stress" has come into general use with the same significance as technical cohesion limit, the authors are here using the shorter term with the understanding that it does not always refer to actual fracture. In the general investigation described in the previously-mentioned papers, 10-18,20,21,23 the influence of the stress system on the fracture stress was studied by means of tension tests of notched specimens. When a circumferentially notched cylindrical specimen is subjected to longitudinal tension, the minimum cross section is under transverse radial tension. The mean radial stress increases with the depth and sharpness of the notch, but is always less than the longitudinal stress. The greatest principal stress (S1), therefore, is longitudinal, and since the radial stress is effectively equal to the circumferential stress, the transverse principal stresses are equiaxial in that plane (Sz = S3). By the use of notched specimens in tension tests it was shown that the fracture stress increases with increase in the radial stress ratio (s3/s1) The evidence is based not only on the results of tests to fracture at various constant temperatures, but also On results of two-stage tests, in which each specimen was plastically deformed a predetermined

Jan 1, 1949

By R. E. Cook

This work presents the development and application of equations of the form developed by Martin1 to describe gravity segregation performance during natural depletion. One-dimensional depletion analyses are applied to several hypothetical reservoirs. Considerable attention is given to the changes in saturation distribution in the dip direction resulting from depletion at various rates. Vertical gas saturation distribution within a sand having vertical permeability is studied to illustrate conditions which provide For low gus-oil ratio production from wells selectively completed away from sand tops, as observed from well performance. Results of performance calculations are shown graphically and illustrate the rate sensitivity of the gravity segregation mechanism and the influence of reservoir geometry and withdrawal distribution. It is shown that for sufficiently high depletion rates gas saturation distribution in the dip direction is characterized by the formation of two discontinuities, or saturation "fronts"; the updip front being the gas-oil contact of the secondary gas cap and the downdip front occurring at a position dependent upon the reservoir depletion rate, withdrawal distribution and reservoir geometry. The gas saturation in the region between fronts is shown to continually increase with time, while that downdip from the lower front remains very low and relatively stable. The effect of increased depletion rate is to reduce the region of stable gas saturation and thus enlarge the portion of the reservoir producing with continually increasing gas saturation. Special attention is given to the performance of reservoirs having sufficient vertical permeability to permit liberated gas to segregate vertically within the sand section before proceeding in the updip direction. It is shown that reservoirs of this type are far less sensitive to depletion rate due to the mechanical control of producing gas-oil ratios afforded by selective well completions away from sand tops. It is shown that gravity segregation performance is adversely af- fected by decreasing reservoir cross-section area in the updip direction. It is also shown that down-dip withdrawal concentrations can restrict gas segregation rates in the dip direction. INTRODUCTION The natural depletion performance of several large producing reservoirs in Western Venezuela has unmistakably shown the significant role that gravity forces play in governing the gas-oil ratio behavior of individual wells and the over - all pressure-production performance of the reservoirs. Analysis and prediction of the natural depletion performance of these reservoirs is of great importance in determining the economics of pressure maintenance operations. In 1957, a method for the analysis of pressure maintenance performance was presented by Martin1 which, in the original and more general form of the equations involved, provides a physically sound basis for the analysis of one-dimensional gravity segregation performance during natural depletion. The work reported herein is an application and extension of Martin's outstanding developments to a series of hypothetical reservoirs in an attempt to explain the general behavior of the gravity segregation mechanism and the influence of such parameters as depletion rate, reservoir geometry and withdrawal distribution. The study considers two types of flow: "distributed flow", where vertical permeability in the reservoir is zero and fluids flow only in the dip direction while uniformly distributed over the sand thickness; and "segregated flow", where vertical permeability is sufficient to permit gas to segregate against the sand top before proceeding updip. This latter type of flow has been recognized as an important mechanism active in the massive sand reservoirs of Western Venezuela. ANALYSIS OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL DISTRIBUTED FLOW SYSTEMS For an inclined reservoir having zero vertical permeability, the velocities of oil and gas flow at any point in the reservoir can be derived from Darcy's equations as

By B. T. Brady, Wilson Blake

One of the more widespread experimental procedures currently used in experimental rock and soil mechanics work involves the use of a short circular cylinder loaded axially between nonrigid end plates1-5 (Fig. 1a and b). It is widely recognized 6 that a number of undesirable features are connected with this test procedure ; the most noteworthy of these is the development of a nonuniform stress distribution throughout the specimen resulting from an elastic mismatch between the specimen and the end plates. In general, the end plates and specimen possess different elastic properties. As a result of this elastic mismatch, the uniform distribution of stress and strain applied to the end plates is altered at the interface, the degree of which is dependent not only on the magnitude of the elastic mismatch but also on whether there is any relative movement between the specimen and the end plate. A convenient measure of the elastic mismatch is the ratio (vp/Ep) / (v8/E3), where v and E are Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus and the subscripts s and p refer to the specimen and end plate, respectively. For most tests that use steel end plates, (v8/E8) is greater than (vp/Ep) ; i.e., the specimen tends to expand or contract laterally more than the end plates. Because of the frictional restraint offered by the end plates, shearing stresses are developed at the interface that, for compression testing, act inward producing a "clamping" effect (Fig. lc). The effect of this "clamping" is to produce a state of triaxial stress throughout the specimen. Fig. Id illustrates the coordinate system and stress nomenclature used. In a homogeneous, elastic two-dimensional plate loaded uniaxially at the edge, a uniform stress distribution is obtained at a distance from the

Jan 1, 1972

By C. W. Sherman, John Chipman

IN the mathematical statement of the law of mass action, the activity of each substance consumed or produced in a reaction is used to obtain a numerical constant which is characteristic of the equilibrium of that reaction at the given temperature. The activity in many cases is equal to, or proportional to, the concentration. If this is the case, any units denoting concentrations, such as weight percentage or mol fraction, may be substituted in the equilibrium expression. It is even permissible to use mixed units provided only that each unit is that used in defining the activity of the corresponding substance. The indiscriminate use of concentration units in writing equilibrium constants sometimes leads to very erroneous results. On the other hand, what appear to be contradictory results from similar investigations often might be resolved if the activity is the quantity that is used to determine the equilibrium constant for the reaction in question. De-sulphurization serves as an important illustration. Sulphur in lron and Steel The control of the sulphur content of the finished product is one of the oldest and broadest problems in the metallurgy of iron and steel. In general, this control must be exercised through the action of a slag, and for this reason experimental studies of the distribution of sulphur between slag and metal have assumed considerable importance. Under slags of the type found in the basic open-hearth furnace the ratio (% S)/[% S] does not in general exceed about 8. Under blast-furnace conditions, however, de-sulphurization ratios of 50 to 100 are readily obtained, and under laboratory conditions using similar slags, the ratio may be as high as 400. The fact that blast-furnace metal is much more readily desulphurized than is molten steel rests upon two distinct phenomena. The first of these is connected with the slag reaction. In the open-hearth furnace, the equilibrium in the following reaction places a definite limit on the sulphur content of the slag: S + 0-- = 0 + S- - where the symbols underlined indicate elements dissolved in the liquid metal, while slag constituents are represented as ions. The high oxygen content of the open-hearth bath prevents this reaction from proceeding far enough to effect good desul-phurization. In the blast-furnace process, however, the oxygen activity is limited by the presence of carbon in the metal and in the coke bed and the controlling reaction becomes: S_+O- + C_=S- + CO(gas) [2] The second phenomenon which contributes to the easier desulphurization of blast-furnace metal is the effect of high concentrations of other elements. These elements, notably carbon, silicon, and phosphorus, increase the thermodynamic activity of sulphur several fold. As a result of this increase, the escaping tendency of sulphur from the metal phase is increased and its removal facilitated. Previous Studies It becomes, therefore, a matter of importance to determine the effects of various elements upon the activity of sulphur in the melt. The experimental approach to this problem has been made through the equilibrium between sulphur in the melt and gaseous atmospheres containing hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. The reaction and its equilibrium constant are written as follows: S + H2(gas) =H2S(gas);K1 = -- [3] Pn2 • as where the symbol a, represents the activity of the sulphur in solution in the metal. The understanding of the chemical behavior of sulphur in steel and pig iron rests on a firm knowledge of the binary system Fe-S. A number of studies of the equilibrium have given closely agreeing results from which the activity and free energy of the dissolved sulphur may be found. The recent paper by Sherman, Elvander, and Chipman1 includes a discussion and quantitative comparison of the results of several of the significant researchesr-" on dilute solutions of sulphur in iron. The results of this study indicate that the relationship between the ratio Ph,s/p+ and the percentage of sulphur in solution is not a linear one. This

Jan 1, 1953

By B. G. Slay, J. P. Pritchard, J. T. Pierce

A short discission is given of the cryotron us a supercozductitzg- switch. The parameters of interest such as gaiz, critical gate current, critical control current, and critical surface current density ave described. The photomask-photoresist process makes possible the study of much narrower dimensioned cryotrons than previously possible using mask stencils. Data is given for the above parameters as a function of width, thickness, temperuture, and crossing ratio. Photographs of the various circuits used are shown. The techniques involved in making connection to the circuits and the precautions taken to avoid side effects in the measurements are discussed. In particular data is given for critical currents of sipercotzducting. lines down to 2X 104 in. A vise in critical surface current density is obserced jor the strallev lines in both lead and tin. A discussion of the ihact of these measurements in the design of future cryotron circuitry is given. In addition to the improvement in device density achieved by simple scale reduction. additonal gains in density may result through improved device form factor. THE cryotron is a superconducting current switch, invented by D. A. Buck.' Fig. 1 shows a typical crossed-film cryotron. Usually the gate is made of tin and the control is made of lead. The critical gate current, is the current that drives the gate resistive with zero current flowing in the control. The critical control current, I is defined as the current in the control necessary to switch the gate resistive with a small monitoring current in the gate. The gain of the device, G, is defined as Since for uniform thin films G should be proportional to the gate width divided by the control width, it is convenient to define the critical surface current density, Jcg, to be the critical gate current divided by the gate wldth. The data which follows will show that, for a given control width, I, is relatively constant. Thus, by measuring Jcg the change in gain as a function of gate width may be measured without measuring I,.

Jan 1, 1967

By O. Jay Myers

THE war effort has furnished the necessary impetus for better magnesium foundry practice. Four or five years ago, there were but a few formulas in general use for cores and mixtures for magnesium castings. Certain sands, binders, and inhibitors were specified and the proportions of these materials in each mixture were maintained between very narrow limits. As more and more war industries entered the field, much research was carried out and methods and practices were improved. Magnesium founding is still in a state of flux; therefore it is not uncommon to find one foundry spraying inhibitors on its cores, and another foundry using sand mixtures with incorporated protective agents. The basic core or dry-sand mold mixture for magnesium in use today is compounded with sand, core oil or resin binder, cereal, and moisture. Core oil or resin binder are added for baked strength while the cereal binder and moisture are for green strength. The normal mixtures (based on the weight of the sand) contain from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent of both cereal binder and core oil, and the moisture content varies between 1.5 and 5 per cent. The ratio of core oil to cereal binder varies from 60:40 to 40:60, while the correct amount of moisture depends upon the method of coremaking. PROTECTIVE AGENTS In all magnesium practice, protective agents are used in conjunction with the core and molding sands to prevent oxidation of the metal. The use of these inhibitors is not novel, but publications covering this field are not entirely adequate. Beck1 says Magnesium alloys decompose water to form magnesium oxide, hydrogen being liberated in the process (Mg + H20 -+ H21 + MgO). This reaction results in the blackening of the skin and the appearance of areas of porosity on the casting surface, the cavities of which are filled with a grey oxide powder (these are termed `burns'). Although sand cores for magnesium castings are thoroughly dried during the baking cycle, burning will take place on the castings unless the metal is protected properly. This type of burning is more difficult to define than the "water-magnesium" reaction cited by Beck. A possible explanation may lie in the following equation: 2Mg + 02 -s 2MgO Here, the source of the oxygen is not water, but the air in the mold cavity, together with the chemically combined oxygen in the core-binding media. Generally, two methods are used to prevent this reaction from taking place.

Jan 1, 1945

By C. E. Lesher

Low-TEMPERATURE carbonization needs no introduction to the literature on coal. This paper will attempt no review of that literature; it tells the story of the commercial development of one of the processes for carbonizing coal at so-called low temperatures, dealing with the technology and economics of the process rather than with the design of equipment. The process used is that covered by the patents of C. B. Wisner, with improvements and changes made by the Pittsburgh Coal Carbonization Co. The important and novel feature of the process is the phenomenon of making the product in ball form (Fig. 1). Melting coal dust into smokeless solid fuel in an apparatus as simple as a revolving cylinder of ordinary mild steel has been proved to be practical. Furthermore, it has been found that the process has a wide application, for by applying a knowledge of why and how this balling action is accomplished, the apparatus can be designed and adapted to treat any coal that has a certain minimum agglutinating property. The operating plant is 20 miles west of Pittsburgh, adjacent to the Champion preparation plant of the Pittsburgh Coal Co. The coal used is cleaned minus 3/8 -in- or finer sizes. The products are low-tem-perature coke, tar and tar products. Present capacity is 7000 tons per month of low-temperature coke and 140,000 gal, of tar. There is no surplus gas for sale, and none of the light oils are stripped from the gas. The coke is marketed in two sizes, 1 to 2 in. and 1 to 6 in., through retail coal dealers for domestic con-sumption in hand-fired furnaces, and for fireplace fuel. The smaller size is bagged by dealers. Crude tar and many distillates and road tars are sold.

Jan 1, 1940

By H. L. Hartman

The estimation of the magnitude of pressure changes which occur in mine ventilation circuits is of primary importance to the mining engineer in making changes in an existing mine or in projecting the ventilation requirements of a new mine. It is a formidable task in many cases, because no adequate theory is available and empirical data are unreliable or even lacking. The common practice of increasing one's estimate of the mine static pressure by an arbitrary "safety factor" to compensate for the unknown is a poor substitute for accuracy. Generally little difficulty is encountered in calculating friction losses in mine airways. As long as the friction factor can be reliably estimated, the well-known Atkinson formula gives accurate results. However, it is in the determination of shock losses that the ventilation engineer encounters difficulty and is apt to resort to an arbitrary allowance. Shock losses may constitute as little as five or as much as twenty-five percent or more of the overall pressure drop in the mine, and such allowances are generally completely unsatisfactory. Since other shock losses have been covered by McElroy (1), this paper deals with a long-neglected source of shock and pressure change in ventilation circuits, divergence and convergence of airflows, here referred to by their more common mining terms, splits and junctions. PREVIOUS WORK There is practically no fundamental information available in ventilation literature on the splitting and junction of airflows, either in mining or mechanical engineering periodicals or handbooks. Fluid mechanics textbooks seemingly avoid the subject of divergence and convergence, except for brief empirical treatment. The only investigation reported for mine ventilation systems was by Weeks, et a1 (21), in 1933. Although applicable to the case of line brattices in coal mines, it cannot be applied to the general case of mine splitting and junctions involving change of direction with little or no area change. In dealing briefly with the subject of shock losses at splits and junctions, McElroy (1) suggests only that they be considered comparable to bends, with losses at junctions being increased 50 pct to allow for interference of merging streams. He recognizes the importance of quantity ratio but concludes that exact quantitative data are lacking to compute losses at splits and junctions. A very capable summary and analysis of the state of knowledge in industrial ventilation and fluid mechanics regarding losses due to divergence has recently been reported by Gilman (3). In considering all earlier work dealing with both air and water as fluids, he compares results on a common basis and obtains good empirical agreement. For divergent flow, the controlling variable in each branch is the quantity ratio, although the deflection angle is of secondary importance. Empirical equations are presented for straight and 90-deg branches with varying velocity ratios, assuming branches smaller than the main duct. These formulas are modifications of the Borda equation for abrupt contraction and expansion. The only information available on shock losses in convergent flow are approximate experimental data presented by Alden (4) and the Manual of Recommended Practice for Industrial Ventilation of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Alden considers the effects of both quantity ratio and deflection angle. The data indicate an effect opposite to that observed in divergence, the shock loss varying directly with quantity ratio. SHOCK LOSS THEORY Because pressure losses due to shock have been found to bear a constant relation to the mean velocity of flow in a given conduit, they are frequently expressed as a dimensionless function of the velocity head, termed the shock loss factor. For airflow in ducts and mine airways, the shock loss may be represented by the formula (1): Hx - XHv, (1)

Jan 1, 1961

By E. L. Estabrook

THE production of crude oil in Wyoming rose to 44,290,010 bbl. in 1923 and declined, during 1924, to 39,295,030 bbl., a decrease of about 11 per cent. The Salt Creek field supplies 75 to 80 per cent. of the production. Pipeline runs from the Salt Creek field reached a maximum in November, 1923, at a daily average for the month of 116,437 barrels. During 1924, the gas pressure in Salt Creek has declined rapidly and the production dropped to about 60,000 bbl. per day. Part of 'the decline during the last few months was due to lack of power to pump the wells. The electric-power plant of the Midwest Refining Co. did not begin to deliver current until the middle of December, by which time several hundred wells were off production. The cold snap in December, which brought, the temperature down to 30° below zero on the 17th, tied up operations almost completely and the average production for the month was only 49,545 barrels. As more wells are being pumped and the number of dead wells reduced, the production is rising and was up to 61,000 bbl. during the last week of January. A further increase is expected as the weather becomes warmer. The production of Salt Creek, by months, during 1924 is given in Table 1. TABLE 1.-Total Monthly Production, Average Daily Production and Number of Producing Wells in Salt Creek during 1924 TOTAL PRODUCTION, DAILY AVERAGE, NUMBER OF MONTH BARRELS BARRELS WELLS January 3,523,647.40 113,666.05 919 February 3,074,916.67 106,031.61 929 March 2,977,095.14 96,035.32 950 April 2,811,110.22 93,703.67 987 May 2,858,842.04 92,220.71 1,024 June 2,649,752.57 88,325,09 1,092 July : 2,697,829.36 87,026.75 1,153 August 2,624,371.84 84,657.15 1,213 September 2,281,219.04 76,040.64 1,274 October 2,073,961.42 67,000.84 1,313 November 1,722,050.09 57,401.67 ~ 1,335 December 1,535,903.78 49,545.28 1,352 Total 30,831,699.57 84,239.61 1,352

Jan 3, 1925

By D. F. Stein

In spite of the apparent usefulness of autoradiography in demonstrating segregation, it has had very limited success in demonstrating grain boundary segregation. Because of this limited success, a model system amenable to mathematical analysis was devised to determine which variables in the experiment are most important. As a result of these calculations, it was concluded that autoradiograPhy is a rather insensitive technique to measure grain boundary segregation. The range (energies) of the emitted particles (ß and a) must be low, and the concentration of the radioactive speczes at the grain boundary must be (in general) two or three orders of magnitude greater than the concentration within the grain. Because of these very restricted conditions , the limited success of the technzque is not surprising. In spite of the apparent usefulness of autoradiography in demonstrating segregation, it has had very limited success in demonstrating grain boundary segregation. Sulfur segregation in iron1 and possibly polonium segregation in Pb-5 pct B1 2 alloys are the only autoradi-ography experiments that have demonstrated segregation to grain boundaries in metals without the formation of a second phase. Segregation to a boundary without the formation of a second phase is often called Gibbs' absorption and is discussed by McLean in Chapter 5 of Ref. 10. There are several394 experiments showing grain boundary diffusion of a radioisotope, but this type experiment is not representative of equilibrium between the concentration of an element at a grain boundary and that in bulk, so it will not be discussed in this paper. In an attempt to determine if temper embrittle ment of low-alloy steels was associated with segregation of antimony to grain boundaries, a program to use auto-radiography (using Sb-125) was initiated. Even though other measurements strongly suggest that segregation is occurring during embrittlement, no evidence of grain boundary segregation was observed in the auto-radiography experiments. An attempt was also made to detect segregation of carbon (using C-14) to grain boundaries in iron during slow cooling. There is again strong indirect evidence7 that segregation occurs during such a treatment, but the autoradiography experiment gave no evidence of such segregation. Because of the failure of these experiments and the general lack of success by our metallographic unit in measuring grain boundary segregation using autoradi-ography, a model system amenable to mathematical analysis was devised to determine which variables in the experiment are most important. MODEL SYSTEM The model system is illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. It is a semi-infinite bicrystal with a single grain boundary perpendicular to the top face. The width of the grain boundary, W, is defined as the region to which segregation has occurred and it is assumed that this region is of constant composition. The assumption of an infinite dimension is for mathematical reasons but the results of such an analysis (as will be demonstrated later) are valid for even very small specimens. It also is assumed that the measurement is not limited by means of detecting the radiation (photographic emulsions, counters, and so forth) but that the means of detecting radiation is linearly sensitive to the radiation and has infinite resolving power. The distance y is the perpendicular distance from the center of the grain boundary to the point at which the background radiation is measured and x is the integration variable. CALCULATION FOR BETA PARTICLES Two values of the intensity of radiation will be calculated, the intensity at the center of the grain boundary and the intensity far from the grain boundary. The radiation at the center of the grain boundary can be calculated in the following way. Assume a grain boundary of width W having a uniform concentration equal to Cgb + Cb where CGb is the excess concentration of the element under consideration at the grain boundary and Cb is the bulk concentration. The intensity of radiation, IgB, at the center of the grain boundary, is a consequence of the amount of radioactive material, decay rate, absorption, and geometrical factors which can be represented mathematically by the following expression:

Jan 1, 1968

By A. T. Robinson, J. E. Dorn

The electrical resistivities of aluminum alloys containing CU, Ge, Zn, Ag, Cd, and Mg were found to increase linearly with the atomic percentage of the solute atoms. Application of Linde's rule to these data suggests that each aluminum atom contributes 2.5 electrons to the metallic bond. ALTHOUGH aluminum invariably exhibits a Jt\. valence of three in ionic solids, it does not follow necessarily that its valence in the metallic state is also three. As a matter of record, many properties suggest that the number of bonding electrons in metallic aluminum is less than three. For example, as shown in Fig. 1, the atomic radii1 of the metallic elements in the solid state decrease with increasing atomic number at the beginning of any one period. The atomic radius of aluminum, however, is greater than that which would result from a regular decrease in atomic radius with increasing atomic number, suggesting that the number of bonding electrons in aluminum is somewhat less than three. Correlated with the anomalously large atomic radius of aluminum is its abnormally low melting temperature. As the atomic numbers increase in any one period, the melting temperatures of the metallic elements increase.' As shown in Fig. 2, however, the melting temperature of aluminum (13) is only slightly greater than that of magnesium (12). Again the number of bonding electrons in metallic aluminum appears to be nearer two than the expected value of three. In addition Ageev and Ageeva3 alculated the electron density distribution in the aluminum lattice. A comparison of such electron density curves for various assumed valence states of aluminum with experimentally determined curves suggests that the actual number of bonding electrons in metallic aluminum is between two and three. Hume-Rothery and Raynor', " have suggested that the above-mentioned abnormalities are associated with the overlapping of the Brillouin zones of metallic aluminum when it is in the usual face-centered cubic structure. The importance of the number of bonding electrons in metals has been extended recently into the field of mechanical properties. While formerly it was thought that the plastic properties of alpha solid solutions were primarily dependent upon the lattice strain induced in the solvent by the solute, it is now known that the difference in the number of bonding electrons of the solute and solvent also has its influence on the plastic properties."1' In order to achieve a satisfactory correlation of the effect of alloying elements on the plastic properties of aluminum alloys,"'T however, it was necessary to assume that the number of bonding electrons contributed by aluminum was about two rather than the expected value of three. It appeared to be desirable, therefore, to seek other criteria for evaluating the number of bonding electrons contributed by aluminum to its alpha solid solutions, especially in view of the practical as well as the theoretical importance of the effect of valency on the plastic properties. Norbury' was perhaps the first to illustrate that the increase in resistance of alpha solid solutions is associated with the differences in valence of the solute and solvent metals. In a series of illuminating investigations Linden-'' has shown that the electrical

Jan 1, 1952

By W. W. Odell

Once it was believed that anthracite or coke were the only fuels generally available and suitable for the generation of water gas, particularly so when this gas was made in the generators of standard carburetted water-gas sets such as are commonly used in the manufacture of city gas. During the past 8 years, practice has changed considerably and it is now common to find gas plants operating without anthracite or coke and using bituminous coal in the generator. This change in fuel has appreciably increased the marketability and sales of certain coal producers' products; accordingly it is of interest to coal operators and others to know the reason for this change, the present trend in practice and the adaptability of various coals for generation of water gas. This paper briefly discusses these conditions and some of the factors relating thereto. Bituminous Coal not Ideal but Cheaper than Coke In spite of many changes which have been made in both process and generating apparatus for using bituminous coal as generator fuel more efficiently, in general it is not an ideal fuel for this purpose. It is supplanting coke because it costs less; it is so much cheaper per ton delivered at the gas works that water gas made therefrom costs less per unit-volume than that made from coke, even though the quantity of generator fuel consumed per therm (100,000 B. t. u.) of gas made is greater with coal. This is the reason why so many city gas plants, as well as others, are using bituminous coal instead of coke. Conditions Favoring Change from Coke to Coal The conditions which have made it possible and feasible, as well as economical, to supplant coke with coal may be summarized as follows: (1) Changes in methods of operating and alteration in generating apparatus; (2) lowering of the calorific standards for city gas, and (3) availability

Jan 1, 1927

By P. K. Koh

With identical annealing heal treatment the development of major annealed texture component seems to depend primarily upon the degree of cold reduction. Cube texture was evident on annealing- 1/2-, 1,/4- , and 1/8-mil tapes at 760°C, but it dissap-)eared on 927°C annealing of 1/8-mil tape cold reduced 96.9 pct. Some cube texturee remained as tile strongest 927 °C annealed texture component in 1/4- and 1/2-mil tapes cold reduced 93.8 and 87.5 pet, respectively. The switching coefficient increases and the squareness ratio of the hysteresis loop decreases proportionally with increasing cube pole concentration. PREVIOUS studies 1,2 on the 1/8-mil ultra-thin molybdenum permalloy tape established cold rolled and annealed textures and their magnetic performance for switch-core and coincident-current memory applications, The major cold-rolled texture was found to be of {110}<335> which is quite similar to the cold-rolled texture of silver and 70-30 cartridge brass. The major annealed texture components were found to be of {120)-- <001> and {113)<785>. Although the direction for easy magnetization for this type of alloy by the single-crystal technique is not avaliable, knowledge from related studies indicated [Ill] as the easy magnetization direction, similar to that of nickel.&apos; Therefore, a cube orientation, if present in the tape core, would be most detrimental to its magnetic performance.3 In its cold-rolled state the tape had < 111 > directions in the rolling plane 14.5 deg from the rolling direction.&apos; But the coercive force of the tape in such condition will be excessive due to large amounts of internal stresses, and therefore makes its use impossible for memory applications due to long switching time. In lower nickel alloys, suchas 50-50 nickel-iron and 65 pct Ni-Fe sheets, previous investigators4"7 found the presence of cube texture on annealing at 900° to 1000°C. Although no cube texture was found in annealed 1/8-mil tape,"&apos; its presence in some annealed 1,/4-mil tape cores was firmly established a year ago as verified by significant differences in magnetic properties. The present investigation is devoted to the orientation study and related magnetic measurements on three thicknesses of the ultra-thin tape, namely, 1/8 mil, 1/4 mil, and 1/2 mil, cold rolled directly from annealed 4-mil stock in the cold-rolled state as well as after they were annealed at 760°C (1400° F) and 927°C (1700°F). The results obtained might serve to elucidate the development of annealed texture as well as to establish clearly the importance of preferred orientation on the magnetic performance of such memory tape core despite its well-known low magnetic anisotropy exchange energy. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Samples were taken from one production heat (0.010 wt pct C, 0.004 P. 0.016 S, 0.80 Mn. 0.29 Si. 79.69 Ni. 4.42 Mo. 0.054 Co, 0.002 Ti, 0.12 Al, 0.04 Mg, 14.56 Fe). Annealed 4-mil sheets were cold re-

Jan 1, 1962