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By Aaron Evans, Chu E. Ho, Tom Richards

"This paper describes an innovative case history of using jet grouting to form a groundwater cutoff wall at the interface of a cut-and-cover construction and an existing tunnel. The design of the jet grouting layout was complicated by the presence of a left-in-place bulkhead of unknown dimensions abandoned by previous construction of the existing tunnel. Jet grouting was performed through predrilled holes within the narrow space between the existing bulkhead sheeting and tunnel structure. A systematic sequence of primary and secondary jet grout elements of varying diameters and panel lengths was executed to achieve an effective groundwater barrier. A key challenge in the jet grout design was the impact of potential deviations due to shadowing effects of the left-in-place bulkhead sheeting and pre-formed jet grout columns, as well as overbreak concrete in adjacent secant pile walls. The flexibility of the jet grouting methodology enabled a wide range of operational parameter combinations to be performed, allowing column diameters to be adjusted based on actual field installation measurements. Special precaution was exercised when grouting at critical locations to avoid over-pressurization and damage to the existing tunnel structure.IntroductionThe 96th Street Station box for the new Second Avenue Subway Line in Manhattan, New York included a transition tunnel, which connected the station to an existing tunnel built in the early 1970s (Figure 1). The new station and transition tunnel were both constructed using the cut-and-cover technique with bottom-up sequence (Aksman et al. 2012, Grigson et al. 2016). The main station structure incorporated permanent diaphragm walls for most of its length, except for the southern segment where high rock levels were encountered and the station box was constructed within temporary secant pile walls socketed into the rock. The permanent diaphragm walls were also utilized for temporary excavation support (Ho and Hu 2014). At the northern end of the site, the new transition tunnel was constructed within temporary secant pile walls that extended from the station diaphragm walls to the existing tunnel at the tie-in location. A temporary traffic deck spanning 60ft across the secant pile and diaphragm walls along the full excavated length of the site allowed traffic to continue operating at street level while construction of the station and transition tunnel progressed below grade."

Jan 1, 2016

By Craig M. Shillaber, Joseph E. Dove, James K. Mitchell

"This paper addresses two primary factors affecting the sustainability of Deep Mixing Methods (DMMs): construction materials and handling of the spoil from wet mixing methods. We examine these factors within a life-cycle embodied energy (EE) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions accounting framework, using the LPV 111 project in New Orleans, LA as a case history. The underlying assumption is that project planning and preliminary design have determined that a DMM is the best ground improvement alternative for achieving the broader aims of sustainable development. While EE and CO2 emissions are direct measurements of environmental impact alone, we illustrate how their minimization can also influence the social and economic consequences of the project. It is recommended that DMMs use lower energy and carbon material alternatives to Portland cement and lime in the binder whenever possible, with preference given to locally sourced materials. Currently available alternative cementitious materials include fly ash and slag, which are waste products from other processes. In addition, recycling the spoil material from wet mix methods on site is recommended. If the material cannot be recycled on site, transporting it to a processing and recycling center for later use as fill is preferred over landfilling. INTRODUCTIONWithin the geotechnical community there is an increased appreciation for sustainability considerations, which are an important component of the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of projects. An assessment of project sustainability includes holistic life cycle thinking, systems analysis, environmental impact assessment, use of safe and benign materials, awareness of local societies and cultures, social equity, protecting human health and well-being, and monetary costs (Abraham, 2006). Since ground improvement is a principal practice domain of geotechnical engineers, it is important that geo-professionals play a role in addressing the sustainability for these projects. In this paper, we illustrate by case history how different materials and methods associated with deep mixing projects can impact overall project sustainability through quantifying project embodied energy (EE) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. EE is defined as all energy consumed to bring something into its present state (Chau et al., 2008; Inui et al., 2011; Soga et al., 2011; Chau et al., 2012). Recommendations are then made for how adverse environmental impacts of Deep Mixing Methods (DMMs) may be minimized, leading to more sustainable geotechnical construction."

Jan 1, 2015

By Seth K. Martin, Tony Nichlany, Alan R. Poeppel, Konstantinos Syngros

"This paper presents a case study on bored pile construction in challenging karst conditions below a supertall building in Kuala Lumpur. Innovative design and construction techniques helped keep the project moving through very difficult and unpredictable geological and drilling conditions. The development encompasses about 12,400 square meters and includes a 77-story tower, a 59-story tower, a five-story podium, and four contiguous basement levels. The site is underlain by a residual soil derived from a siltstone/claystone (the Kenny Hill formation), then limestone bedrock. Subsurface conditions are relatively uniform within the Kenny Hill and highly variable at the limestone surface. Extreme cases included 40-meter-tall underground caverns, 40-meter-tall pinnacles, and a 50-meter-tall underground rock ledge. Local piling practice in Kuala Lumpur involves deriving pile capacity entirely in the Kenny Hill formation to avoid the unpredictable limestone surface. However, the massive tower foundation loads and relatively shallow bedrock required the piles to be socketed in the limestone. The 77-story tower will be supported by 2.0- and 2.2-meter-diameter bored piles 50 to 100+ meters long, socketed in limestone, with working loads between 40 and 70 Meganewtons. Two Osterberg-cell load tests were used to develop a site-specific rock socket skin friction correlation with RQD. Exploratory rock probes were drilled at each pile location to design the rock socket length based on the rock quality and sloping rock conditions. The rock mass was pressure-grouted during each rock probe to improve the rock quality and fill voids in the rock.INTRODUCTIONThe Kuala Lumpur City Centre, home of the Petronas Towers and the world’s deepest foundations, will be the future home of a new supertall tower. The 77-story tower will be supported by a piled-raft foundation that relies on piles terminating in the highly erratic, karstic Kuala Lumpur limestone formation. The high building loads coupled with relatively shallow limestone across the majority of the tower footprint forced the piles to extend into the limestone."

Jan 1, 2016

By Babak Mamaqani, Pirooz Barar

Regional Connector Transit Corridor (RCC) is part of the Los Angeles metro expansion project under construction which adds three new stations into the system. PB&A was responsible for the design of the support of excavation (SOE) systems for two stations, 2nd/Broadway and 2nd/Hope, in RCC. In this paper, challenges and lesson learned from SOE design of 2nd/Broadway station with a main focus on underpinning design are discussed. 2nd/Broadway station required to cut and cover excavation of 500 ft long by almost 100 ft deep, underneath 2nd Street. SOE systems consisting of drilled soldier beams with tiebacks and/or struts. The main challenge in 2nd/Broadway station was to underpin the LA Times building which was partially protruded into the station. A chellenging underpinning system consisted of concrete panels and ground anchors was designed to support the building surcharge and prevent settlement. The underpinning system was designed based on METRO design criteria and the deflection was evaluated by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) program, PLAXIS 2D. A maximum deflection of 0.4 inches was calculated to occur at the top of the underpinning system. Data from settlement and tilt sensors showed minimal movements which aligned with PLAXIS outputs. PROJECT DESCRIPTION The Regional Connector Transit Corridor (RCC) is Los Angeles Metro’s ambitious Light Rail Project. It runs under the City’s main thoroughfares, Flower and 2nd Streets, and when complete will alleviate traffic and parking congestion in downtown Los Angeles. The Regional Connector will connect thousands of residents living in the bedroom communities of the Inland Empire and Long Beach to their jobs Downtown. The rail line will serve 1.9 miles, using the $1.756 Billion budget to construct the underground rail line, including 3 new stations, at 2nd & Hope Street, 2nd & Broadway, and 1st St. & Central Ave (Fig. 1).

Jan 1, 2019

By Suresh Chikati, Gangadharan Santhanam

Twin tunnels were constructed to a length of 863m using TBM in one of the underground metro projects. The tunnels pass through complex geological conditions (soil, rock and mixed conditions). This paper presents the consideration of volume loss and the corresponding ground settlement associated with the excavation of twin TBM tunnels by analytical and numerical methods. Empirical methods were used to calculate the ground settlement induced by the excavation of twin tunnels. The ground settlement values were directly derived from the two parameters: the volume loss and trough width parameter. These parameters are calculated based on the geological conditions at the tunnel face and tunnel overburden. The finite element software, Plaxis 2D was used to model the soil parameters with appropriate geological conditions. Twin tunnel excavation is simulated in Plaxis 2D and the effect of tunnelling on the ground was simulated by percentage volume loss. The suitable line contraction value was applied to the tunnel linings to simulate the volume loss. The surface ground settlement was directly obtained from Plaxis 2D. Instrumentation arrays were proposed along the twin tunnel alignment, to provide the ground settlement monitoring data within the influence zone of tunnelling activities. The derived ground settlement values from analytical and numerical methods were compared with the actual field instrumentation and monitoring data. From the field instrumentation data, the actual volume loss values were calculated. The compatibility of ground settlement and volume loss calculated using analytical and numerical methods and those measured using field instrumentation data is discussed in this paper.

Sep 1, 2022

By Joseph A. Mann

"Soil mixing is a proven solution for the construction of ground improvement adjacent to sensitive structures due to the use of computer controlled and monitored equipment. The precision to which geometry is controlled can often be the deciding factor for selection of soil mixing versus other means of ground improvement. Protection of existing structures and utilities requires careful planning, investigation, and may demand supplemental control measures. During planning, it is imperative that the process be fully developed by the project team to ensure proper control measures are budgeted; otherwise, the success and safety of a project can be jeopardized.This paper discusses case histories of soil mixing performed in close proximity to large, sensitive, and critical utilities, including foundation support for an existing earthen dam impounding a water reservoir in upstate NY, a buffer zone for a tunnel drop shaft at an operating wastewater treatment plant in Washington DC, and a containment system to protect a major water line along an interstate widening project in Baltimore, MD. The function of soil mixing as ground improvement varied; however, the selection and application of the technique versus other means of ground improvement was specific due to the controlled manner of construction with soil mixing. Through the three case studies, small diameter (3- ft [0.9 m]), large diameter (8-ft [2.4 m]), and mass mixing applications will be discussed. Furthermore, the case studies offer insight into how the geotechnical community in the Mid-Atlantic utilizes soil mixing technology for widely varying applications. Additional topics of discussion will be the design and construction of the ground improvement systems, procedures and execution of the work to protect existing structures, and the QA/QC methods, procedures, and results from the projects.INTRODUCTIONWet soil mixing, also known as the Deep Mixing Method, is a ground improvement technique that improves the characteristics of weak soils by mechanically mixing them with cementitious binder slurry. To construct columns, a powerful drill advances a mixing tool with radial mixing paddles located near the bottom of the drill string. The binder slurry is pumped through the drill string to the tool as it advances and additional soil mixing is achieved as the tool is withdrawn.Wet soil mixing is applicable in a wide range of soils. Soil mixing has been performed at depths more than 100 lf (30 m). Soils vary widely in their ability to be mixed, depending on the soil type, strength, water content, plasticity, stratigraphy, and texture. Almost any soil type, including organics, can be treated with certain soil mixing technologies, although they may require high binder contents and/or pretreatment to achieve the required results. In cases when the target soil is very soft, including some very weak clays and peats, 100% of the soil may require treatment. This complete coverage of soil mixing is referred to as mass mixing."

Jan 1, 2015

By Justin Simmons, Michael Arnold, Bob Faulhaber

"In order to remodel an existing beach resort on the Gulf of Mexico, an existing three story structure, founded on stepped tapered piles, was to be replaced by a ten-story building with service rooms on a daylight basement level, conference rooms on the next levels and up-scale hotel rooms on the upper levels. The new building was founded on augered-cast-in-place (ACIP) piles. The pile caps and the basement required excavations between nine and fifteen feet (three to five meters) below ground surface.BAUER Foundations Corp. (BFC) successfully used Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) to install the support of excavation walls. This technique allowed for the adjustment of the wall alignment during execution in order to avoid existing and new piles and other underground obstructions. Nearly 1600 – 16-inch (400 mm diameter) ACIP piles were installed to an average depth of 71.5 feet (22m) below ground surface (BGS) by BFC to support the new hotel structure. Initial grout overages in piles were excessively high and ground stability issues were encountered in some pile locations. By identifying specific areas of concern BFC was able to modify the approach to ACIP installation, effectively mitigating the ongoing risks and successfully completed the project.PROJECTMarriott Hotels began the $300 million renovation and upgrade of their Marco Island Marriott Beach Club Hotel in Marco Island, FL to JW Marriott status in May 2015. The renovation included the demolition of a portion of their existing hotel tower, and the construction of a new 10-story hotel tower consisting of 94 new guest rooms and a 10,000 SF (900 m2) ballroom, among other amenities. As is typical with hotel construction, time was of the essence. The schedule was the driving factor of this project as the owner had already booked events in their new ballroom starting in January of 2017.BFC provided the client with a deep foundation package that included the installation of 1562 Augered Cast-In-Place (ACIP) piles supporting the new tower, and the design and construction of approximately 36,500 SF (3,400 m2) of soil-mixed retaining wall for support of excavation (SoE)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Chu E. Ho, Alfredas Daugiala, Nicola Ebanks

"The construction of an ancillary structure for the new Second Avenue Subway Line in Manhattan, New York City involved a deep excavation in highly variable rock conditions adjacent to a fragile masonry building. The maximum difference between the lowest and highest rock elevations was about 30 feet, which posed a problem for the installation of secant piles that formed the supporting retaining wall for the excavation. At certain areas, the rock levels were higher than the top of the invert slab of the ancillary structure. To avoid disturbance to the adjacent fragile building, the secant piles were fully cased for drilling through the overburden soils and the rock sockets were formed using non-vibratory technique. This paper discusses the design and installation details of the secant pile wall and the contingency measures that were considered to mitigate the highly variable rock conditions. Monitoring of the adjacent fragile building showed that impact of pile installation were controlled within tolerable limits and safety of the building was not compromised.INTRODUCTIONThe 96th Street Station forms part of the newly constructed Second Avenue Subway Line on the East side of Manhattan Island, New York City (Figure 1). During construction of this station, several deep excavations were carried out adjacent to existing fragile buildings (Arksman et al. 2012, Grigson et al. 2016). These fragile buildings were typically four to five stories high, with a single rubble wall basement supported on timber piles or seated directly on the fill. The timber piles were often found to be in a poor condition and connections to the footings were compromised due to rotting of the timber within the zone of water table fluctuation. Several of these fragile buildings had to be strengthened and underpinned to improve the stability of the structures prior to commencement of excavation for the new subway station box (Trabold et al. 2012, Ho and Pena-Iguaran, 2013). The situation was most challenging at Ancillary Buildings 1 and 2 located at 93rd and 97th Street respectively, where secant pile walls were located merely 2 feet away from the adjacent property line, due to architectural space constraints. While mitigation of excavation induced ground movements can be controlled by the adoption of a stiff excavation support system, a more concerning factor was the uncertainty associated with the impact of the secant pile wall installation on the stability of the existing fragile buildings. This was particularly difficult at Ancillary 1 where the secant piles encountered highly variable rock levels that intruded into the excavation space. The following sections discuss the design and installation of the secant pile wall and contingency measures that were considered at Ancillary 1."

Jan 1, 2016

By Henry H. Tayler, Eric Sturel

1 Triton Square was originally a six-storey building with a one-level basement located within a commercial development near Euston, London. It was designed and constructed in the 1990s and the foundation scheme comprised straight shafted London Clay piles arranged singly beneath columns. The scheme added three storeys and a five-storey infill in the central atrium area to increase the building floorplate by 70% and maintained the usability of the basement space. As the loads to support the additional floorplate area were greater than the capacity of the existing foundations, an optimised strengthening scheme of small diameter piles installed within the existing basement and a slender retro-fitted raft was installed to augment the existing piles. The re-use and strengthening of almost all of the existing foundations enabled re-use of a very high proportion of the superstructure and in approximately 35,000 tonnes of concrete and 1,900 tonnes of reinforcement and structural steelwork being re-used. The structural embodied carbon for the refurbished building scheme is estimated at an average of 136 kgCO2e/m2, achieving a Structural Carbon Rating Scheme (SCORS) “A” rating with components detailed in the paper.

May 1, 2022

By Selvaganesh Selvaraju, Deepak Raj, Sandun N. Wimalasena

One of the world leading oil majors is carrying out a multi-billion-dollar expansion of its integrated manufacturing complex in Jurong Island, Singapore, the global oil trading and refining hub. Soil conditions at the site comprise 10-20m thick reclaimed sand, below which is 3-5m of soft marine clay underlain by stiff soils of the Jurong Formation. The conventional foundation solution would adopt driven precast concrete spun piles; however, precast spun piles have a high embodied carbon from the usage of steel and cement. In order to reduce the carbon footprint, an alternative solution comprising deep vibro techniques was developed. The EFFC-DFI carbon calculator was used to demonstrate the expected scope 1, 2 and 3 carbon emissions for both driven pile and vibro techniques. By using in-house, state-of-the-art fuel-efficient machines, alongside the innovative design concept and usage of natural materials such as sand and stones, actual CO2e emissions were reduced from a potential 21,000 tonnes, with the spun pile’s solution, to only 1,900 tonnes. The saved 20,100 tCO2e is equivalent to an average car driving 2,000x around the Earth’s equator. The paper discusses the application of soil improvement as a more sustainable, lower carbon alternative to conventional piled solutions.

May 1, 2022

By Takefumi Takuma, Tsunenobu Nozaki, Masashi Nagano

Using sheet piles and pipe piles for permanent earth retaining is one of the most economical methods for constructing basement walls since they can also work as temporary shoring during construction. A major mixed-use redevelopment project in the UK, encompassing two to three large city blocks, utilized both sheet and pipe pile walls for a two-level subterranean parking structure. The 290m (950ft) x 100m (330ft) basement’s steel walls were designed to temporarily support excavation during construction and eventually to become a load carrying permanent structure in order to expedite the construction process and to achieve cost reduction. Two types of press-in piling machines, one for sheet piles and the other for pipe piles, were used for the job because of their abilities to press in sheet and pipe piles within tight tolerances for finished walls, for difficult installation conditions with very hard soil, and for its very low noise and practically zero-vibration operation; an essential factor for the job in close proximity to other businesses and residents. BACKGROUND Steel sheet pile and pipe piles have been used for many purposes including earth retaining. They are produced at steel mills and spirally welded at a fabrication yard to their corresponding specifications under strict quality control measures. Therefore, they can form highly reliable walls to its design capacity with proper installations. Their advantages as underground walls are:  They can form a high level of water cut-off function with their interlocks sealed by welding or with hydrophilic materials. See Figure 1 for a few examples for a sheet pile application.  They can carry vertical loading in addition to horizontal load and bending moment.  They can be a self-standing and temporary/permanent wall with flexible design and construction processes; bottom-up, top-down or hybrid sequences can be chosen per the project’s needs.  They can form a thinner wall than other wall types, creating larger inner space. See Figure 2.

Jan 1, 2019

By Kim Chan, Bryn Thomas, Ben Dening

"Increased rail capacity is required into Kooragang Coal Terminal near Newcastle, NSW, Australia to relieve rail traffic congestion and improve management of train arrivals. An additional arrivals track is proposed on new embankment within a heavily constrained site located between existing railway tracks, a high pressure gas pipeline located 7m beyond the toe of the embankment and an environmentally sensitive wetland area. Ground conditions at the site consist of deep soft estuarine clays, a soil profile which is consistently encountered throughout this part of the east coast of Australia. Upon determining that a ground improvement solution was required to ensure global embankment stability, various solutions were considered including a piled viaduct, retaining walls, dry deep soil mix (DSM) columns and concrete injected columns (CICs). DSM columns were adopted as the design solution, a decision which was driven by the presence of sensitive infrastructure and a confined site. DSM offered further advantages including reduced impacts on temporary working platform design, where the use of a thinner platform could be justified owing to the lower track loads of a DSM rig relative to other ground improvement techniques.INTRODUCTIONThis paper presents a case study of the design of DSM ground improvement works to provide support for and enable safe construction of a new railway embankment over deep soft soils with a number of nearby infrastructure and other constraints. The project site is approximately 1km long and is constrained by existing railway tracks, a high pressure gas pipeline and a wetland area of ecological significance. Due to the site constraints and ground conditions, a number of ground improvement techniques were considered during the design process, with DSM columns eventually adopted. This paper discusses the design development and the particular suitability of the technique for use in this application.SITE DESCRIPTIONLandformThe site is located along the northern boundary of the Kooragang Coal Terminal (KCT) at Kooragang Island (KI), a collection of former islands located near the mouth of the Hunter River, north of Newcastle, NSW. The topography of the original area was generally flat with mudflats, swamps and mangroves existing along tidal water courses. Subsequent dredged fill reclamation and development has amalgamated the previous islands into the current KI. The site area extends over numerous channel infills including the buried former course of the Moschetto Channel (paleochannel).Figure 1 shows the proposed 1km long new rail corridor construction area in relation to the various natural and man-made site constraints including existing tracks, the high pressure gas pipeline, the wetland area and the existing reclaimed area."

Jan 1, 2015

By Kenneth R. Chadwick, Thomas J. Tuozzolo, Terence P. Holman

"Micropiles are often installed to retrofit existing foundations that experience distortion and to underpin structures prior to future construction. The Dublin Road Pump Station project is an example of retrofitting due to a basal failure during construction that compromised the bearing capacity of the soils. A completed pump station settled and had to be restored to its original position, and work could not proceed until a new support system for the partially completed wet well could be designed and installed. The project involved the construction of three below-grade structures for a new pump station in a growing area of Jackson Township, N.J. The general contractor constructed three pump station structures consisting of a pump chamber, wet well and an inlet chamber in early 2006.The geologic conditions beneath the project site (Figure 1) consisted of loose/soft to medium dense/stiff sand, silt and clay to a depth of 40 ft below ground surface, underlain by medium dense to dense glauconitic silty fi ne sand. When the general contractor was constructing the wet well, which involved an internally supported sheet pile excavation 32 ft below the ground surface and 28 ft below the static groundwater level, basal failure, boils and ground loss occurred. Driven piles were installed to support the wet well structure, but additional ground loss was observed within and outside the sheet pile excavation, followed by settlement of the adjacent pump chamber structure. Post-failure investigations were conducted by Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers, N.Y. (MRCE), a geotechnical and foundation engineering consultant. Their investigation concluded that the ground losses around the pump station structures had compromised the supportive capabilities of the natural subsoils.The owner engaged Moretrench, a geotechnical specialty contractor, to work with MRCE to develop a constructible solution to support the pump station structures in general and to restore the pump chamber to its original position. Knowing that ground loss had already occurred as a function of the initial basal heave and subsequent pile driving, the team selected micropiles as the preferred foundation element, primarily due to their flexibility in bypassing these disturbed zones and generating capacity as a function of grouting volume and pressure. Drilled piles were also recommended due to concerns about causing additional settlement of the pump chamber if driven piles were used."

Jan 1, 2008

By Rae Mackay, Kaveh Ranjbar Pouya, Ali Tolooiyan

"A major part of Melbourne’s central business district is underlain by a very soft silty clay deposit known as Coode Island Silt (CIS). Due to the low strength of CIS, most construction in the region is based on pile foundation systems. Traditionally, the design of pile foundations is mostly based on empirical and analytical methods. However, numerical methods such as Finite Element Methods (FEM) can be utilised for more accurate estimation of the bearing capacity and deformation of pile foundation systems, especially in complex loading scenarios. Unfortunately, no systematic effort is made yet to calibrate a realistic nonlinear constitutive model to describe the geomechanical behaviour of CIS in a numerically based solution. Among the nonlinear constitutive models, the Hardening Soil (HS) model is an advanced hyperbolic model which accounts for the nonlinearity of stress-strain relationship as well as the stress dependency of the soil stiffness. In this study, the HS model is calibrated based on laboratory tests performed on CIS. Also, to validate the accuracy of the calibration, the wellknown cavity expansion theory is employed to model the CPT cone tip resistance (qc) in CIS, and results are compared against the measured CPT qc profile at the field.INTRODUCTIONA large percentage of world’s coastal areas are covered with soft marine clay deposits. Having very low shear strength and high compressibility, the alluvial deposits are known as one of the most problematic soil layers for the design and construction of infrastructure facilities. A major part of Melbourne’s central business district is underlain by a very soft silty clay deposit known as Coode Island Silt (CIS). Basically, there are two main solutions for construction in such weak soil conditions. One is the use of pile foundations transferring the applied load to deeper and stronger soil layers, and the second one is to employ ground improvement techniques such as using deep soil mixing columns to improve the bearing capacity of the soil. In both cases, a practical geotechnical design should incorporate both stability analysis and deformation analysis to achieve a cost-effective and reliable solution. Most of the classic solutions for stability analyses such as limit equilibrium analysis disregard the stress-strain relationship of the soil for the sake of the simplicity (Chen, 2007; Sokoloviskii, 1965). In a similar simple approach, most of the past studies of deformation analysis have been established on the basis of linear elasticity. However, it is well recognised that the soil stress-strain behaviour is highly nonlinear even at very small strains (Burland, 1989). Hence, for a precise deformation analysis of the foundation of important geotechnical structures, the application of advanced nonlinear constitutive models is extremely beneficial. Precise deformation analysis is essential as geotechnical designers have to predict the displacement of geotechnical structure and the adjacent soil as well as the induced displacement and forces to adjacent structures. This issue is more highlighted recently in the analysis, and design of highly important infrastructures as geotechnical engineers are facing new challenges in the analysis and design of infrastructures in congested areas. Rapid population growth, especially in the major cities all around the world necessitates the design and construction of more integrated infrastructure facilities. Consequently, geotechnical engineers should employ more advanced design approaches to address the new challenges in geotechnical engineering practice. Complicated geometries, different loading scenarios and the application of nonlinear deformation models which is believed to be essential for a precise deformation analysis, necessitate the application of numerical methods to satisfy most of the design requirements."

Jan 1, 1900

By Terence Ma, Seok hyeon Chai, Jeff Lam, Thamer Yacoub, Brigid Cami, Sina Javankhoshdel

The Limit Equilibrium (LE) analysis of pile-supported geotechnical structures normally assumes a constant shear force for the pile instead of considering the non-linear capacity of the pile which is related to the pile displacement. In this study, a 3D Limit Equilibrium analysis is carried out for a landslide model supported with piles by considering the constant and non-linear capacity of the pile which is computed using a separate Finite Element (FE) algorithm. The depth of the pile, soil layering, and the pile properties are used with an assumed maximum displacement to compute the geotechnical non-linear capacity of the pile. In this study, the results of the initial unreinforced 3D LE model was first compared to the 3D FE analysis results. Then, the pile pattern was applied to the failure region in the 3D LE model, and then the factor of safety was recomputed. The results of the constant shear piles were compared to the model with the non-linear piles.

Sep 8, 2021

By Leena Korkiala-Tanttu, Noora Lindroos, Juha Forsman

"Construction works at the Helsinki city sea shoreline requires dredging and handling of contaminated sediments. Most of these soft dredged sediments are regarded as too poor quality material for earth construction purposes. Mass stabilization technology has been applied to improve the technical and environmental properties of the dredged sediment in order to utilize the material in construction. The treatment site presented in this article is placed in the West Harbor where the dredged sediments are disposed in basins, mixed with binders by mass stabilization and transported to utilization sites. The volume of these basins is about 90 000 m3. So far these basins have been used three times during the years 2011-2014. The most applied binder has been cement. Its high price and carbon footprint have encouraged use alternative binders. Other used binder materials include fly ash and end product of desulphurization from coal combustion, and fly ash from combustion of Estonian oil shale. The technical and environmental properties of stabilized sediments have been studies in the laboratory and in situ thoroughly. Some properties of the stabilized sediments which have been studied are: compression strength, modulus, hydraulic conductivity, leaching of contaminants, etc. The leaching test results show that heavy metal leaching is very low with all binder materials tested.1. INTRODUCTIONContaminated marine sedimentsMarine sediments in the coastal areas are often contaminated as a consequence of industrial and port activities, as well as the influence of cities located there. Construction activities and reclamation of shore line require dredging and handling of contaminated sediments since the level of contamination inhibit dumping of dredged sediments into the sea. Based on their technical properties, most of these dredged soft and watery sediments (clay, gyttja, etc.) are regarded as too poor quality material for earth construction purposes. Economic, sustainable and environmentally safe management of contaminated, dredged sediments is a key issue in many construction sites.In the City of Helsinki, mass stabilization technology has been applied to improve the technical properties of the dredged sediments in order to utilize the material in construction. Owing to stabilization / deep mixing / solidification, also the contamination is encapsulated in a monolithic solid of a high structural integrity. Thus, contaminants migration is restricted by the decreased surface area exposed to leaching.The treatment site presented in this article is placed in the West Harbor (a place of Helsinki called Jätkäsaari) where dredged sediments are disposed into stabilization basins, mixed with binders by mass stabilization and then transported to final utilization sites. The location and principle of these basins is presented in Figures 1-4. The overall volume of these four stabilization basins is about 90 000 m3."

Jan 1, 2015

By Guo Qian, Du Guangyin, Deng Yongfeng, Liu Songyu, Wang Ningping

"Metakaolin (MK) can efficiently enhance the strength and the impermeability of concretes and mortars. However, it has rarely been attempted in admixtures of cement-stabilized soils until presently. As deep mixing method is wildly used in ground improvement, the strength of cemented soils (soilcrete) and the applicability of the MK should be considered. This paper focuses on the macro-strength development of cement-stabilised silty soil mixed with MK. The result shows that the addition of MK can enhance the unconfined compressive strength of the soilcrete, which attributes to a combination of the rates of OPC hydration and the MK-CH reaction. Note that the strength of soilcrete was influenced by the properties of soil, water-to-binder mass ratio (W/B) in admixtures, which needs to be reconsidered since the binder mass composes that of cement and MK totally.INTRODUCTIONCement was used in ground modification techniques, such as the jet grouting, deep mixing method (DMM) which was put into practices in Japan and Nordic countries in the middle of the 1970s, and then spread to China, South East Asia[1]. For last decades, fly ash, slag or silica fume was mixed with cement to form the new cement base stabilizing agent in the view of economy and performance improvement. The mechanical behavior of these soil-binder admixtures (nominated as “soilcrete”), was investigated. But the soilcrete modified with the metakaolin (MK) was still not investigated much and lots of further work needs to be conducted.Some laboratory experiments of the soilcretes modified with MK have been taken[2~4]. Kolovos et al. (2013) indicates that the unconfined compressive strength has a more significant improvement when W/B equals 0.4 than that when W/B equals 1.20 concerning the water-to-binder mass ratio (W/B). Sonebi et al. (2013) investigates the mechanical behaviors of cement grouting containing MK with W/B equals 0.4, and also found the effectiveness of the addition of MK. Zhang et al. (2014) performed the studies on Lianyungang marine clay improvement showed that MK obviously enhanced the quality of cemented soils.In this paper, the strength of soilcrete modified with MK is further investigated, where the unconfined compressive strength at different curing time, the content of MK and cement (w/w) in lab conditions was discussed."

Jan 1, 2015

By Brian Wilson, Megan Atkinson, Richard Diggle, Nathan Sweeney

"Ruskin Dam, located near Mission, British Columbia, was constructed in 1929 and 1930 and comprises of a concrete gravity dam structure founded on bedrock. At the right abutment, which consists mostly of dense to very dense sands and silt, the dam abuts against overburden soils, and connects to a cutoff wall system consisting of sloping concrete slabs. Significant seepage and piping issues were encountered during first filling of the reservoir in 1930. In 2012, BC Hydro, the owner of the dam, awarded a contract for the construction of seepage control measures at the right abutment, including construction of a plastic concrete cut-off wall extending upstream of the dam, a plastic concrete seepage training wall extending downstream of the dam, tie-in of the new cutoff wall to the dam, consisting of jet grouting of the soils adjacent to the dam to allow for the construction of the special cutoff connecting the cutoff wall to the dam, and construction of additional jet-grouting ground improvement downstream of the dam.Integral to the upgrade was the requirement for the special tie-in cutoff wall, consisting of a highly flexible, impermeable membrane to connect the concrete dam to the new, 1 m thick plastic concrete cutoff wall. The tie-in extends vertically into bedrock through the dam and jet grout columns constructed adjacent and beneath the overhanging portion of the dam at the right abutment. The membrane is required to survive the anticipated earthquake induced deformation between the dam and the abutment soils.This paper describes the processes used to develop a material suitable to meet the specified flexibility and permeability criteria, as well as the innovative construction techniques utilized to construct the slot and place the bituminous material within it. The final dimensions of the slot were in the order of 7 m long by 25 m deep by 0.17 m wide. The bituminous material was placed under a head of water which was required to maintain stability of the slot, and was placed at temperatures in excess of 120 degrees Celsius."

Jan 1, 2017

By Anahita Modiriasari, Benjamin S. Rivers

Measurement while drilling (MWD) is a subsurface exploration technique associated with real-time and continuous monitoring and recording of drilling data during the drilling process. This technique can be used for underground investigations to differentiate ground strata, detect the presence of fractures and voids, and evaluate geological features and mechanical properties of geomaterial. When MWD is used for geotechnical investigations, it can improve site characterization, identify variable conditions, improve design and construction, lead to shorter project delivery times, reduce the cost and risks associated with limited subsurface data and geotechnical uncertainties, and maximum return-on-investment. Given these benefits, MWD is gaining attention among transportation agencies and the geotechnical industry. Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA’s) innovation deployment program “Every Day Counts (EDC-5)” includes the implementation of Advanced Geotechnical Methods in Exploration (A-GaME), which aims to implement effective, underutilized subsurface exploration methods, including MWD, in U.S. practice. This paper provides an overview of the MWD technology for geotechnical site investigations and presents a case history where MWD was employed to design deep foundation for the construction of a building in Massachusetts. The advantages of this technology for risk reduction and project cost and time saving are also discussed.

Oct 1, 2022

By Ramin Motamed, Fahim M. Bhuiyan, Raj V. Siddharthan, Joseph Toth

The difficulty in material characterization and the erratic response of cemented soil layers, such as caliche in the Las Vegas valley, creates challenges for practicing engineers to reliably predict the response of deep foundations. The focus of this paper is the numerical prediction of axial response in drilled shaft foundations, which are commonly used in infrastructure projects (i.e., bridges and tall buildings) in Las Vegas, NV. The prevalence of hard caliche layers with variation in the degree of cementation add to the complication in numerical modeling. In this study, the applicability of two existing t-z models, developed for Florida limestone and soft rock, was evaluated based on numerical simulations of three bi-directional load tests conducted at caliche-dominant sites. The corresponding top-down load tests were also simulated for further assessment. A MATLAB-based finite-difference program, NVShaft, has been used to implement the mentioned t-z models in axial load analysis. Complexity originating from drilled shaft construction and the interaction with caliche during one axial load test resulted in a stiffer predicted response compared to measure data. For the other two load tests, both t-z models produced comparable load-displacement responses. It was observed that the t-z model for Florida limestone predicted relatively stiffer responses and higher drilled shaft capacity.

Sep 8, 2021