Search Documents

By A. M. L. Cushing, S. Kelebek, A. Ghahreman

Iron sulfides are part of many ore deposits affecting flotation separation of non-ferrous base metals from them. Open-circuit potential (OCP), potentiodynamic polarization, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were carried out with pyrite and pyrrhotite electrodes to investigate their reactivity under various flotation conditions, which involved the use of TETA, SMBS, and their combination. TETA was found to adsorb on the electrode surfaces causing a significant increase in charge transfer resistance of the product formed, which was most significant at OCP. This effect is much less with SMBS, indicating its greater surface reactivity compared to TETA. The combined use of these reagents decreases charge transfer resistance to a greater degree than that experienced with their individual uses. Addition of Cu2+ as a potential activator to this system nearly eliminates the action of TETA on the electrode surface, which can be attributed to sequestration/chelate formation in liquid phase. The relative effects of these reagents on pyrrhotite electrode are similar to that of pyrite. The main difference between the pyrite and pyrrhotite electrodes is that the observed charge transfer resistance on the pyrrhotite surface with each reagent case is significantly lower by 3 to 4 fold. This is compatible with its anodic nature and ease of oxidation since the OCP value of pyrrhotite is lower than that of pyrite. Results are discussed in relation to flotation/depression behavior of these iron sulfide minerals in mineral separation processes.

Jan 1, 2017

By M. J. Steffens

ESPLIM is a novel separation technique that combines the advantages of solvent extraction and electrostatic dispersion but its application in the extraction of nickel by the direct solvent extraction route and the effect of high electrostatic field on the stability of organics have not been explored. These were investigated in this study and it was found that the technique allows 97% extraction of the nickel in a single stage compared with 3 stages by the conventional solvent extraction. Also, three months of exposure to 5.0 kV under simulated operational conditions had no adverse effect on the stability of organics.

Jan 1, 2005

By Jose A. Caceres

Mine planning and mineral processing optimization are usually treated as two unconnected problems, especially at open pit and panel caving mines where the cut-off grade is practically the only variable optimized and analyzed for in the planning proposes. Using existing planning tool, the output is a reserve consumption strategy privileging higher grades. With the earlier consumption of the highest grades, every year produces revenues which are closer to the cost and potentially even below cost. However, there are other ore characteristics that can also affect the profitability of the operation. A new methodology has been developed, incorporating the grinding and flotation relationship into the mining economic models for the simultaneous analysis and optimization of the throughput-work index-recovery relationship through changes in the mining limits, sequence and redefinition of the reserve consumption strategy. A mine-site that implements this new planning strategy, can expect to increase the NPV from 5 to 15% depending on the actual operational settings. Two case studies have been developed, showing how the inclusion of the work index in the economic model changes the phase and mining sequence in an open pit mine and the caving sequence and the optimum column height in a panel caving mine.

May 1, 2004

By L. Haavanlammi

The Outokumpu HydroCopper® process is a chloride based atmospheric leaching process alternative that can treat a variety of different concentrates. Chalcopyrite and other copper sulfides can effectively be leached under atmospheric pressure in strong, aggressive chloride solution using copper (II) ions as oxidant. Impurities are removed from the solution as carbonates and ion exchange. Copper is precipitated from the purified pregnant leach solution as copper (I) oxide, which is filtered and reduced by hydrogen gas to metallic copper powder, which is melted and cast into copper product. Sodium chloride solution from copper (I) oxide precipitation is decomposed in a chloralkali electrolyser, to products of which are circulated back to the process. The process has been designed for copper concentrates and is a fast and economical way to produce copper wire rod directly from concentrate. The process can efficiently handle impurities like arsenic and mercury, which can be harmful in the pyrometallurgical processes. The process has been tested in the laboratory and 1 ton/day demonstration plant scale and it has been proven to be commercially viable. The process has been designed to meet the strictest directives for emissions. Other environmental factors are carefully considered to obtain the highest possible eco-efficiency.

Jan 1, 2007

By G. W. Davies

"IntroductionThe development of British Columbia's northeast coal deposits, represents the single biggest industrial undertaking in British Columbia's history.As a result of this development, several thousand jobs were created, hundreds of millions of dollars in new tax revenue and billions of dollars in new foreign exchange began flowing into Canada.The Northeast Coal Development began in 1981 with the signing of sales contracts to ship a total of 6.5 million tonnes of metallurgical and additional quantities of thermal coal annually to Japan over a 15-year period. The current long-term agreements contain provisions for extension to 20 years.The sales contracts with a group of Japanese steel mills were signed by two Vancouver-based mining companies, Quintette Coal Limited and Teck Corporation. The agreements followed years of exploration and negotiation beginning in 1968.The first shipment of coal from Quintette and Teck's Bullrnoose Mine was transported by BC Rail and Canadian National Railways to the Ridley Island coal port in the fall of 1983."

Jan 1, 1992

By B. F. Giyani, D. Rahal

"Stirred media mills have proved to be more energy-efficient than the conventional ball milling for fine grinding applications. The mill performance is governed by a number of operating variables including mill stirrer speed, feed particle size, solids content and slurry rheology. A study was conducted to assess effects of mill speed, media size and density, and slurry density on the Stress Intensity (SI) in a VXPmill and thereby the relationship to mill performance. For the mill speeds tested, it was found that the optimum tip speed is 7 m/s. If the speed is too high (12 m/s) energy losses result due to mechanical friction losses and heat generation. If the speed is too low (3 m/s), the kinetic energy is not sufficient to promote breakage. The size reduction ratio increases with the increase in mill speed and the decrease in solids content especially in the coarse fraction particle sizes. The effect of slurry rheology on mill performance was shown by assessing the effects of increasing solids concentration and decreasing particle size. Rheological effects seemed to interact with mill speed such that the mill was less energy-efficient at higher solids content and at higher mill speeds particularly for grinding to fine particle sizes. There is an opti"

Jan 1, 2017

By J. H. McKibbon

This paper outlines the basic steps in the sizing of electrostatic precipitators according to the Deutsch equation. Design parameters that do not appear in the equation are also described.

Jan 1, 1971

By Fathi Habashi, Ahmet Deniz Bas

"The mechanism of leaching of semiconducting minerals such as PbS, ZnS, UO2, etc., has been the subject of intensive speculation by hydrometallurgy researchers in the early 1950s who assumed the formation of intermediate surface complexes that could be neither separated nor identified by physicochemical techniques. The electrochemical theory of leaching introduced in the late 1960s resolved this problem by comparing the leaching process to a corrosion phenomenon similar to the corrosion of metals. Few years later, experimental evidence showed that anodic and cathodic zones are formed on the dissolving mineral although no electric current is imposed on the mineral during dissolution. A discussion of these findings is outlined.INTRODUCTIONIn the early 1950s researchers realized that kinetic studies for leaching ores are as important as thermodynamic calculations. It was also during this period that the concept of species adsorption on mineral surfaces has dominated the interpretation of the mechanisms of most reactions. This may have been due to the fact that many researchers of this period came from the mineral dressing sector and were influenced by flotation theories. However, when the knowledge of lattice defects and the semiconductivity of minerals became known and their importance in extractive metallurgy was realized, there was a need to explain the leaching reactions in light of these modern theories (Habashi, 1969, 1970). Semiconducting minerals of importance in metallurgy are two categories: the sulfides such as those of copper, lead, zinc, and the oxides such as those of uranium."

Jan 1, 2016

By Ron Tessier, Claude Bazin, Robert Grant, Mike Cooper

"Grinding simulators are now widely available to assist in the optimization of industrial circuits. They provide circuit operating conditions or flowsheet designs that yield a given product size distribution. However, they do not provide information of the impact of a change of product size distribution on the subsequent flotation or leaching stages. This paper presents a method to predict grade and recovery indices for a flotation plant as a function of the flotation feed size distribution. The application of the method to various size distributions allows the determination of the optimal fineness of grind. A case study for a CuPb rougher circuit of a New Brunswick complex sulphide processing plant is presented to illustrate the method.IntroductionIs the grinding circuit product fineness optimum for the subsequent separation steps? This is a question that is certainly very difficult, but critical, to answer. Laboratory and pilot plant testworks can provide clues as to whether grind should be finer or coarser. For a full scale operation there is no other way than trying to change the setup of the grinding circuit and verify the effect on flotation. True effects can, however, be masked by the numerous and unexpected disturbances inherent to grinding and flotation circuit operations. A good preliminary investigation requires a noise free environment to elaborate possible solutions for the question.Plant simulators provide this noise free environment. However, despite grinding and flotation simulators having evolved significantly for the last 20 years, very little is available on the integration of both simulators to analyze the effect of fineness of grind on metallurgical performances. For instance, a grinding circuit simulator may help to find the tuning of a grinding circuit that will yield the desired fineness of grind, but does not inform on the effect the new product size distribution will have on the separation stages. Linking grinding and flotation would require a flotation plant simulator with the rate and infinite recovery parameters for each mineral in each size interval considered. This approach is seldom used because of the tedious work required to estimate the model parameters. Recently Leroux(1992) proposed a method to predict mineral liberation from grinding ore of known mineralogical texture. Although the method is still at its infancy it may provide, when combined with a reagent conditioning model (e.g Niemi et al., 1982; Bazin et al., 1988), a way to simulate flotation without the need of entering the numerous parameters of a flotation model."

Jan 1, 1994

By T. R. Yu, D. B. Counter

"In an effort to increase productivity, the use of fly ash as a binder for consolidated backfill was studied. From laboratory and underground tests f or its cementitious properties and environmental effects, it was found that a portion of Portland cement could be replaced by the same amount of type ""C"" fly ash to produce an acceptable consolidated rockfill product for use at Kidd Creek.The environmental concerns in terms of dust control and emanation of radon gas were unfounded from measurements. The dust count was comparable to the use of Portland cement only, or with ground blast furnace slag, and the radiation readings were low, averaging one-seventh the regulation level.Since May 1984, a total of over 100 000tonnes of fly ash has been consumed as a binder blended with Portland cement, producing over four million tonnes of consolidated rockfill. To date, the fill in the stopes has performed very satisfactorily, while yielding considerable cost savings.IntroductionThe Kidd Creek minesite, located 27 km north of the city centre of Timmins, Ontario, produces 4.5 million tonnes of base metal sulphide ore annually. The mining method for both No. I and No .2 mines is mainly sub-level blasthole stoping with delayed backfilling.No. 1 mine was developed with a shaft to a depth of 930 m in 1973 to recover the ore between the floor of the open pit at the 216 m horizon, and the 792 m horizon. Stopes are normally 18 m wide, 22 m to 65 m long, with heights varying from 90 m to 135 m. Vertical rib pillars between stopes are typically 24 m wide and sill pillars are 30 m thick.Pillar recovery is implemented after the consolidated rockfill placed in the mined stopes has cured for a period of at least three months. This allows a maximum recovery of the ore with a minimum of dilution, while also maintaining safe working conditions.No. 2 mine was developed from a second shaft, sunk to a depth of 1530 m in 1978, for the recovery of ore beneath the No. I mine. Sub-level stoping in No .2 mine is similar to No.1 mine in methodology, yet differs in sequencing, as no rib pillars are left."

Jan 1, 1988

By C. G. Anderson

Alkaline sulfide leaching technology (i.e. ASL) has been studied, presented and published throughout the literature and utilized in some current engineering studies. Yet, the actual industrial applications are very few and the knowledge about these is very limited. Hence, a large gap between the laboratory, publications, engineering studies, and the actual industrial plant exists. Recent studies of ASL applied to copper enargite concentrates definitively bear out this dichotomy. Hence, this paper will seek to dispel the common misperceptions that continue to surround the selective industrial ASL hydrometallurgical technology. For edification of the reader, a listing of ten common misconceptions and myths is listed. As well, ASL history, fundamental aspects and a new flowsheet application for simultaneous gold and high purity antimony oxide production from low grade materials is included. The associated estimated economic considerations are also included to heighten enlightenment about the application of this industrially proven technology.

Jan 1, 2014

By Rae Simpson

"This paper provides insight into the elements of computerized maintenance systems and identifies some of the factors which influence their effectiveness. The paper describes what to expect in terms of benefits and problems, the nature of effective computerized maintenance systems, some of the systems available and a process for selecting a system for your organization.The paper will be of interest to mining company executives and maintenance or computer personnel who are involved with, or contemplating, the introduction of computerized maintenance systems.IntroductionIn the drive to improve profits in an increasingly competitive world, mining companies are now using some of the most sophisticated equipment available. The introduction of large and complex equipment such as drag lines, haul trucks, and high-capacity milling equipment has resulted in order-of magnitude improvements in productivity. However, this productivity is now, more than ever, dependent on the continued operation of the equipment. A prolonged breakdown of a critical component can have a significant effect on companies' bottom-line results. As more technologically sophisticated equipment is introduced, maintenance costs become an increasingly important factor for mining companies.Fortunately, sound modern management principles are being used more often in maintenance departments. Progressive maintenance managers are turning to computers to help manage the myriad of details associated with running a maintenance organization.Some maintenance departments in larger mining operations would find it difficult, if not impossible, to operate at current productivity levels without their computer systems. Unfortunately, some other companies gain very little from their computerized systems and would probably be better off without them.How can you be sure that computerized maintenance will improve the maintenance picture for your company? What benefits can you expect to achieve? How do you go about selecting a maintenance system for your organization? These are some of the questions facing industry managers and executives today. In the following sections, we will provide some guidelines and insights to help address these challenges."

Jan 1, 1988

By T. Yalcin

"This paper describes the development of a process flowsheet designed to provide high dewatering rates and to bring about savings in tailing disposal costs. The flowsheet comprises a hydrocyclone, a settling cone and a thickener arranged in closed circuit. The mill tailing, after pulp density adjustment, is fed to the hydrocyclone which yields two products. The underflow product is sent to the settling cone for further dewatering. The overflow product, together with the settling cone overflow, goes to the thickener which, with the aid of flocculants, gives a clear effluent and a relatively dilute underflow. The latter combines with the original mill tailing to form the hydrocyclone feed. Solids finally leave the system in the settling cone underflow which can reach pulp densities of up to 78%, making it suitable for direct disposal or for use as mine backfill.Some discussion is included for the selection and sizing of equipment required for this process. INTRODUCTIONDewatering is an essential process for the disposal of mill tailings which forms an added burden in milling practice, often with little or no return. It is, therefore, desirable to conduct this process as economically as possible. One way of reducing costs would be to increase the rate of dewatering so that savings can be made in the size of dewatering unit s which would lead to lower capital and operating expenditures.A common method of dewatering mill tailings is gravity sedimentation which is frequently carried out with the aid of flocculation. In most cases, flocculation greatly enhances the sedimentation process, but only until a pulp density of 50% to 55% is reached in the settled material.Centrifugal sedimentation in hydrocyclones can provide high pulp densities rapidly, but does not result in a clear effluent.This paper outlines a suitable combination of gravity and centrifugal sedimentations that results in an over-all high rate of dewatering. The system developed produces a material of high pulp density while at the same time giving clear effluent."

Jan 1, 1989

By A. Mellek, M. Pischtschan, M. Perrucci

ABB has received an order for one of the most challenging mill drive projects in its history. With one SAG mill and one ball mill to be added at an iron ore mine in Sweden, the customer’s plant managers wanted to have the most efficient solution for driving their mills but had the budget limitations typically faced by the majority of mining companies during periods of market downturn. To find the best balance between cost of acquisition and highest performance throughout the lifetime of the plant, ABB was selected to deploy a synchronized bypass solution, in which only one drive system is used for two different mills in series. However, being one of the first grinding mills in the world with such a solution was not the only challenge the ABB team faced: The inclusion of some mill application functions - e.g., frozen charge protection, automatic positioning and creeping mode - brought the demands on the engineers to another level. With only one frequency converter and one mill application controller available, the configuration logic and interlocks had to be meticulously designed and thoroughly tested to ensure a smooth and safe startup. The solution offers a footprint reduction and more operator flexibility at a reduced investment as each mill can be run in both directions, and wear on the mechanical components can be greatly reduced due to ABB’s premium ring-geared mill drive (RMD). This paper will describe the details of the project, the configuration developed and the tests performed to guarantee correct software functionality. Mill startup is scheduled for January 2016.

Jan 1, 2016

By G. Dubé, A. Leclerc, P. Quinn, G. E. Agar, J. Y. Clouthiér, J. D. McLaughlin

"Gold dissolution by cyanide requires the presence of oxygen which is usually supplied by sparging compressed air into the gold containing slurry. For those ores that contain certain obnoxious substances that consume oxygen, maintaining the required minimum level of dissolved oxygen can be troublesome. One of the most economical solutions to the problem of low dissolved oxygen, especially in plants that have air compressors installed, is to enhance the rate of oxygen mass transfer.The oxygen mass transfer rate was measured in a two phase system using two different sparger arrangements, and with addition of a frother that is known to reduce the bubble size produced by the sparger. The common sparger system was shown to be inefficient compared to a readily available but under utilized method of gas dispersion which introduces air directly below the reactor turbine. Transfer of this technology to an operating plant confirmed the beneficial effect of the improved sparger system. The addition of the frother did decrease the bubble size, but it also reduced the oxygen mass transfer rate."

Jan 1, 1993

By Simon Weixiao Sun

Conventionally, carbon steel has been the primary material for salt mine headframe construction, protected by specialty paint layers to prevent corrosion. These layers require meticulous QA/QC during fabrication and erection, and the top UV protection layer typically loses effectiveness after an average of 10 years, necessitating ongoing maintenance. As headframes age, significant structural repairs are often required. Alternatively, stainless steel can eliminate corrosion concerns, though its high initial cost has limited its use in headframe design. However, when factoring in long-term maintenance costs, a 'maintenance-free' stainless steel headframe can be an attractive option for stakeholders. This paper compares the structural performance and economic considerations of painted carbon steel and stainless steel headframes, including initial capital and long-term maintenance costs. Additionally, it explores a hybrid approach, strategically using carbon steel in low-contamination areas to reduce initial costs and significantly minimize future maintenance efforts.

May 4, 2025

By L. Xia, B. Hart, K. Douglas1, S. C. Chelgani

Development work to optimize a flotation flowsheet for rare earth element (REE) recovery is underway. The original approach used alkyl phosphates and phosphoric acid ester as collectors to concentrate REE minerals. To improve REE recovery, hydroxamates as alternative collectors were investigated. In this paper, micro flotation of REE minerals using salicylic, benzoyl and naphthoyl hydroxamates is reported. Unlike phosphonic collectors, slime removal does not show a significant effect on REE recovery when using hydroxamates as collectors. Among the three hydoxamates, the grade of La, Ce, and Nd for concentrates produced by salicylic hydroxamate is the highest. The recovery response with naphthoyl hydroxamate is similar to that of salicylic hydroxamate; good grades for La, Ce, and Nd, less effective for Nb, Y, and Zr. The data indicated an affinity by salicylic and naphthoyl hydroxamtes for LREE over the HREE minerals. In comparison, benzoyl hydroxamate indicated an affinity for Nb, Y, and Zr. Temperature effects on REE recovery were also studied. The grade and recovery of REEs generated by flotation using a mix of salicylic and benzoyl hydroxamates at room temperature was almost identical or even better relative to the recovery using naphthoyl hydroxamates at elevated temperature.

Jan 1, 2014

By Anthony Finch

Many mines combine open pit with underground mining, and on many occasions the underground mine is an extension of the open-pit. In these circumstances the decision about where the open-pit stops and the underground starts is crucial and driven by many factors. This paper looks at some of the ways that this cut-over can be calculated and specifically examines the calculation of it using modern mine optimization software. The paper provides a case study which will review various outcomes using these techniques, and demonstrates the influence of various factors on the optimal transition cut-over point. Biographies Mr Finch is a Divisional Manager and a Principal consultant at Snowden Mining Industry Consultants in Vancouver, Canada. At Snowden Mr Finch leads a team of engineers that perform mining engineering studies for projects around the world. Prior to joining Snowden Mr Finch was the Mining Manager at Barrick?s Henty mine in Tasmania Australia. Prior to that Mr Finch has held a variety of roles in both consulting and operations working for various organisations at various levels in the Asia Pacific region. Mr Finch gained a bachelor?s degree in Mining Engineering from the University of Queensland in 1986, and a bachelor?s degree in Economics from the University of Queensland in 1993. His expertise is in mine planning, mine optimisation and mine management. Dr Elkington is a Consultant at Snowden Mining Industry Consultants in Perth, Australia. He is responsible for the design and implementation of Snowden?s proprietary optimization software products. Prior to joining Snowden Dr Elkington completed his PhD in Mine Optimisation at The University of Western Australia, and bachelor?s degrees in Engineering (Hons) and Commerce from The University of Western Australia. He specialises in optimization and trade-off studies, and has consulted on projects across all major commodities and regions.

May 1, 2011

By I. Farr, P. Quinn, H. Mani

"Difficulties in the flotation of Inca's ultramafic ores at the Thompson Mill are related to the presence of serpentine slimes and some floatable rock minerals. Serpentine slime coatings depress pentlandite recovery while rock flotation decreases concentrate grade. Carboxy methyl cellulose (CMG) has been shown to promote sulphide flotation and to reject floatable rock.To improve ultramafic ore flotation, CMC addition in the rougher stage was studied in a laboratory scale column. Batch tests were conducted in the lab and followed up with continuous testwork at the Thompson mill. At 0.5-1.0 g CMG per kg ore, pentlandite recovery is increased by 5-10% in rougher flotation, pentlandite/rock selectivity is improved and pentlandite/pyrrhotite selectivity is unaffected.IntroductionAt Inca's Manitoba Division, two distinctly different sulphide ores are processed at the Thompson Mill, primarily by froth flotation. The sulfide ores are contained within the Thompson Nickel Belt and currently there are two operating mines, Thompson and Birchtree. Sulphide mineralization in both mines is simple, consisting of pyrrhotite (both monoclinic and hexagonal), pentlandite, and minor chalcopyrite. Both deposits are hosted by metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks with variable ultramafic rock associations. Ultramafic rocks are mostly serpentinites: magnesium rich rocks composed predominately of serpentine. There is little serpentinite at the Thompson mine, while mineralization at Birchtree is closely associated with significant ultramafic rocks.Excellent recoveries of pentlandite (Pn) and chalcopyrite (Cp) are achieved at the Thompson Mill when processing ore from the Thompson mine. In treating the ultramafic associated Birchtree ore, nickel recoveries are some 6 to 8% below that achieved with Thompson ore. Furthermore, a typical concentrate from Birchtree ore contains more rock and is higher in MgO content. The presence of rock in the concentrate is related to free floatable rock species as well as rock locked with sulfides. The reason for the difference in flotation responses of these two ores has been the subject of on-going re-search."

Jan 1, 1998

By V. Panayotov, M. Panayotova

"Finding a reliable relationship between fundamental properties of minerals of non-ferrous metals and their ability to float is extremely important. The approach presented in this work allows us to draw predictive models for an effective flotation, suitable choice of reagents regime and expected technological results before the minerals enter the flotation process. Attempts to adjust the technological regime in already begun flotation are often unsuccessful because the basic physicochemical processes have already taken place. Mineral processing can be optimized on the basis of objective and basic parameters, decisive for the efficiency of the process - the state of the surface of the mineral; assessment of: minerals flotation ability, the need to apply and the type of needed pretreatment, and expected technological results. The theoretical foundations of such an approach are presented in the work, as well as supporting them experimental results, and information on practical implementation in lead-zinc and copper-pyrite ores selection.INTRODUCTIONIncreasing impoverishment of ores of nonferrous metals incoming to the flotation and rising costs for obtaining the final product lead to the inevitable question - will the mineral processing process be beneficial economically, technologically feasible and environmentally safe and what is the way to improve its efficiency. Some of the possible solutions are already in practice - new more efficient and less energy consuming flotation machines and equipment, new - more efficient and selective reagents, new combinations of flotation regimens, and so on.Finding a reliable relationship between fundamental properties of minerals of non-ferrous metals (sulphides and oxides - most of them with semiconductor properties) and their ability to float is extremely important. This is the subject of research, started in the 60s of the previous century and continuing to the present day. Such dependence would enable a realistic assessment of flotation ability (flotability) of minerals before their flotation processing. The basic dependence, displayed by the researchers as Hoberg (1975), Chanturia and Shafeev (1977), Chanturia and Lunin (1983), etc., represents a relationship between bulk properties of minerals and their flotability, considering especially the concentration of the main charge carriers, namely electrons or holes. The bulk properties are practically constant for minerals from a given field. But the 'main arena' of the flotation process is actually the mineral surface (Carta, 1970; Rao, Labonte, & Finch, 1992; Panayotov, 1999; Rao, 2003; Hu, Sun & Wang, 2010). Therefore, we introduce a methodology for studying the surface of minerals, which methodology gives the degree of semiconductor bands bending on the surface and respectively - the charge of the mineral surface and its ability to interact with reagent-collector. The latter can be used to select the most optimal reagent for the corresponding mineral."

Jan 1, 2016