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By Volker Weiss, George Sachs, AE. P. Klier

PHYSICAL chemistry contributes to the understanding and efficient operation of hydrometal-lurgical processes in many ways, among them by providing quantitative answers to the following questions. 1) Can a given chemical reaction or process be made to operate and. if so, under what conditions? 2) what are the' factors which determine the rate of the reaction and how can this rate be regulated in practice? Thermodynamics attempts to answer the first of these questions and kinetics the second. The answer

Jan 1, 1958

By L. J. Gurevich

IN the course of the examination, at the Bureau of Standards, of fusible tin boiler plugs for the Steamboat Inspection Service, it became evident that an investigation should be undertaken to determine the precautions necessary in the manufacture of acceptable plugs. The results of the tests of these plugs show that their manufacture has improved, though at present not all of the plugs tested are satisfactory. Table 1 gives the result of tests of some 1500 plugs from about 100 makers. Records of the tests show that several of the makers were able to produce satisfactory plugs with every pouring. The Steamboat Inspection Service has the following specifications for fusible plugs: "Fusible plugs for use in boilers of steam vessels under the Jurisdiction of the Steamboat Inspection Service shall be made of bronze casing with the bore tapering continuously and openly from end to end, and filled from end to end with tin not less than 99.7 per cent. pure and to contain not more than 0.1 per cent. of lead and not more than 0.1 per cent. of zinc. The small end of the bore may be countersunk not more than 1/32 in. in depth and width, but no recess, thread, or cavity other than this countersink shall be allowed."

Jan 8, 1919

By Thomas F. Donnelly

The Province of San Cristobal is situated on the south side of the island of Santo Domingo about 25 miles west of Santo Domingo city, the capital of the republic. The copper mineraliza,tion is found about 8 miles north of the town of San Cristobal,. in the section known as Bucaro Hill; in San Francisco Hill; on the Nigua River; and on the Jaina River. The district is reached by automobile from Santo Domingo city over an excellent road for 25 miles to San Cristobal, and then, by horseback 6 or 8 miles up the Nigua River to what is locally known as "Camp

Jan 1, 1916

Jan 1, 1899

By Thomas Fraser

There are large coal reserves in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela, and growing productive industries in Brazil, Chile, Peru and Colombia. The paper describes current activities in these coal fields, and improvement programs that are in progress, or are planned. Special emphasis is placed on improvements in mining and preparation practice, and expansion of production that have been accomplished by American equipment and technical assistance.

Jan 4, 1951

By J. W. Snavely

THE high tension belt conveyor is introducing a new and tremendously expanded era of low cost bulk material handling. High tension belt conveyors are generally those installations involving very long centers, high lifts, or drops, in which the belts are stressed up to their maximum tension values, and further, where the belt construction provides tension capacity far beyond what is possible with conventional belt constructions. With these high tension installations, the magnitude of the forces involved demands careful refinement of accepted design practice in order to achieve optimum balance of all factors. No attempt will be made to evaluate the relative merits of belt conveyor haulage with other means of transportation. For present purposes, it is assumed this has already been done in favor of belt conveyor. Neither will any attempt be made to evaluate the various conveyor belt constructions now available or to balance the advantages of various types of mechanical equipment. It is also assumed that the basic haulage information on which the conveyor design is based is accurate and complete. A sustained maximum, uniform load on the belt at all times must be achieved through proper feed control and the use of adequate surge storage to level the peaks and valleys of any varying demand for the material being handled. General Belt Capacity Considerations The belt conveyor capacity tables published by various belting and conveyor equipment manufacturers vary to a considerable degree, and the ratings given are quite conservative. Of necessity, these published ratings are based on the handling of average materials under average conditions. In applying a high tension belt, all possible capacity from the belt must be obtained in order to hold its width to a minimum and thereby limit the initial cost. Two factors are involved, loading to maximum cross section area and traveling at a maximum practical speed. Belt Loading: Proper treatment of the loading of the belt will result in maximum cross section to the load, and published capacity ratings can be exceeded, sometimes by appreciable margins. On the 10-mile conveyor haul used in the construction of Shasta Dam, California, although the rated capacity of the belt line was 1100 tons per hr, at times the system handled peak loads of 1400 tons per hr, almost 25 pct better than the rated capacity. One of the large coal companies has been able to exceed rated capacity by as much as 50 pct. Loading conditions which must be controlled are: 1. Large lumps must be scalped off and rejected or the load must be primary crushed before being placed on the belt. 2. The material weight per cubic foot must be accurate, must be known for all the materials being handled, and must be known for the complete range of conditions of the individual material being handled. Long centers and high lifts magnify small differences into serious proportions. 3. Uniform feeding to the belt is most important. Various types of feeders are available, which can be used to place a constant predetermined volume of material on the belt, or, where an appreciable range of material weight exists, through electrical control actuated by current demand, to place a predetermined uniform tonnage on the belt. One long slope belt in a coal mine in Pennsylvania is being fed at three separate stations with the controls so arranged that whenever the maximum load is going onto the belt from the first station, the other two stations automatically cut out. Whenever the load from the first station drops back, the other two stations again automatically cut in. 4. Careful design of the chutes and skirts is necessary to get the load centered on the belt with a minimum of free margin along each edge. Some free margin at the edge of the belt is necessary to prevent spillage, but if the load can be kept accurately centered, this free margin area can be reduced, and more material can be carried on the belt. What can be accomplished in this respect will vary widely, depending on the nature of the material being hauled. The chute and skirt design must also protect the belt. 5. The design of chutes and skirts should also get the load traveling in the same direction and close to belt speed, so that the load comes to rest on the belt as quickly as possible. The design of the chutes and skirts is worthy of careful study, and after a system is put into operation it should be experimented with to get the best results. Belt Speed: High belt speeds should be used in high tension work. Obviously, high belt speeds enable haulage on a narrower belt, reducing initial cost. The major portion of belt wear takes place at the loading point and around the terminal pulleys. The

Jan 1, 1952

By William E. Ford, Edward Salisbury Dana

Examination in the Wet Way Examination by Means of the Blowpipe 479. The complete investigation of the chemical composition of a .mineral includes, first, the identification of the elements present by qualitative analysis, and, second, the determination of the relative amounts of each by quantitative analysis, from which last the formula can be calculated. Both processes carried out in full call for the equipment of a chemical laboratory. An approximate qualitative analysis, however, can, in many cases, be made quickly and simply with .few conveniences. The methods employed involve either (a) the use of acids or other reagents " in the wet way," or (b) the use

Jan 1, 1922

By J. M. Flaitz, A. S. Parks

OF the various methods of sampling gas-condensate wells, a method that secures a continuous representative sample of the well stream is desirable. Such a method, consisting of a sampling tube introduced into the well tubing, has proved satisfactory. The method is sufficiently accurate for operating and engineering problems A portable testing apparatus can be used with the sampling tube to obtain data useful in studying the economic and technical aspects of the development and operation of gas-condensate properties. Introduction The recent discovery and development of gas reserves that contain hydrocarbons that condense with reduction of temperature or Pressure, or both, to form a product known as condensate, has brought many new problems to the oil and gas industries. With further discovery of deep, high-pressure fields it is presumable that many more gas fields of this type will be added to the steadily increasing number. Such gas reserves are found either associated with oil as a gas cap or in separate formations. There seems to be no positive correlation between the physical or geological nature of the reservoir, and the chemical composition or phase characteristics of its contents. Knowledge of the chemical make-up and phase behavior of gas-condensate reserves is needed to cope with many problems. A knowledge of the chemical composition and phase characteristics of the reservoir material is necessary to properly design a gasoline or recycling plant, to estimate natural gas and condensate reserves, to enable the operator to study the economic and technical aspects of various methods of operation and development, and to carry Out the plan of operating subsurface and surface lease equipment. This information is often useful in questions of mineral ownership, proration, legal position, and taxation. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss methods used by the writers to determine the chemica1 composition and phase characteristics of the fluids produced from a condensate well. The scope of the paper includes a discussion and description of the method of sampling, the results of tests on the accuracy of the sampling method, a description of a portable testing apparatus used to examine the phase characteristics, typical results of tests on wells from several condensate fields, and some of the applications of these data to production problems. References to previous work on this subject are cited at the end of the paper. The Problem At reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure, the fluids produced from a condensate well exist in a homogeneous vaporous condition. The consequent reduction of temperature and pressure that occurs as this gas enters and flows up the well tube results in condensation of some of the hydrocarbon material to form a liquid. The relative amount of liquid condensed at any point in the flowing system

Jan 1, 1942

By J. M. Flaitz, A. S. Parks

OF the various methods of sampling gas-condensate wells, a method that secures a continuous representative sample of the well stream is desirable. Such a method, consisting of a sampling tube introduced into the well tubing, has proved satisfactory. The method is sufficiently accurate for operating and engineering problems A portable testing apparatus can be used with the sampling tube to obtain data useful in studying the economic and technical aspects of the development and operation of gas-condensate properties. Introduction The recent discovery and development of gas reserves that contain hydrocarbons that condense with reduction of temperature or Pressure, or both, to form a product known as condensate, has brought many new problems to the oil and gas industries. With further discovery of deep, high-pressure fields it is presumable that many more gas fields of this type will be added to the steadily increasing number. Such gas reserves are found either associated with oil as a gas cap or in separate formations. There seems to be no positive correlation between the physical or geological nature of the reservoir, and the chemical composition or phase characteristics of its contents. Knowledge of the chemical make-up and phase behavior of gas-condensate reserves is needed to cope with many problems. A knowledge of the chemical composition and phase characteristics of the reservoir material is necessary to properly design a gasoline or recycling plant, to estimate natural gas and condensate reserves, to enable the operator to study the economic and technical aspects of various methods of operation and development, and to carry Out the plan of operating subsurface and surface lease equipment. This information is often useful in questions of mineral ownership, proration, legal position, and taxation. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss methods used by the writers to determine the chemica1 composition and phase characteristics of the fluids produced from a condensate well. The scope of the paper includes a discussion and description of the method of sampling, the results of tests on the accuracy of the sampling method, a description of a portable testing apparatus used to examine the phase characteristics, typical results of tests on wells from several condensate fields, and some of the applications of these data to production problems. References to previous work on this subject are cited at the end of the paper. The Problem At reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure, the fluids produced from a condensate well exist in a homogeneous vaporous condition. The consequent reduction of temperature and pressure that occurs as this gas enters and flows up the well tube results in condensation of some of the hydrocarbon material to form a liquid. The relative amount of liquid condensed at any point in the flowing system

Jan 1, 1942

By David R. Maneval, W. E. Foreman, J. Richard Lucas

INTRODUCTION The objective of this chapter is to inform the industry, as well as the public, of the challenges in dealing with the problems associated with the contamination of air and water from coal preparation plants. The need for an informed industry is most important. It is hoped that some contribution may be given to a more efficient and economical approach to the problems of plant waste contaminants at individual plants. The problem has many facets, and consideration to specific area should begin early before any significant problems develop at a given plant. It is then possible to have a reasoned approach before the pressures of an emergency environment force hasty and incomplete solutions. It will be necessary to anticipate these problems in the design of new preparation plants and advance consideration should be given to all the problems concerned with contaminants. The first part of the chapter will concern itself mainly with the contamination aspects of fine-coal cleaning and "black-water" disposal. Also attention will be given to the nature and formation of water from coal-mine drainage systems and the treatment of these waters for industrial use. Some attention will be devoted to the cost of installing and operating the various beneficiation systems for the removal of suspended solids. The second part of the chapter will analyze the problems of air contaminants from coal preparation plants. The nature and the effects of these contaminants and their potential for air pollution will be examined. One of the most critical is the measurement and analysis of these contaminants. As a result of identifying and determining the extent of the problem, better control can be planned. One of the most serious contaminants in air involves the element sulfur, and its elimination as a source of air pollution is one of the most challenging areas in coal preparation today. The last part of the chapter will emphasize the long-range problem of refuse disposal and control. Minimum operating and maintenance costs are functions of the proper selection and geometry of refuse disposal areas. Disposal procedures are varied but must be rigidly pursued or difficulties will result. Maintenance of refuse areas, including monitoring of burning refuse, is critical. It should be recognized that fine-solid refuse disposal systems must be carefully designed to minimize contamination. WATER CONTAMINANTS FROM PREPARATION PLANTS Pollution Aspects of Fine-Coal Cleaning and "Black-Water" Disposal The effluents from coal washeries and waters draining from plant-site surfaces inevitably contain fine coal and coal refuse materials in suspen-

Jan 1, 1968

By T&apos Ke, ing-sui

Accoriding to the classical theory of elasticity, the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is represented by a straight line. such a representation implies that there is a linear relationship between strain and stress and also that strain is a single-valued function of stress and vice versa. Actually, such a one-to-one correspondence between strain and stress does not exist in real metals. A well-known example is the elastic after-effect on unloading. Another familiar example is damping or internal friction, that is, the dissipation of energy attending vibration. In an extensive review of such phenomena, zener1,2 has proposed the term "anelasticity" to denote that property of a solid in virtue of which strain is not a unique function of stress in the non-plastic region. The phenomena arising from anelasticity are called anelastic effects. The measurements on anelastic effects are important in many fields of metals technology. The, in precise instruments such as watch springs, difficulties often arise from the slight dimensional changes after fabrication. The internal friction or damping capacity of metals is often an important factor in deciding whether they are appropriate for instruments in which there are accompanying vibrations.3 However, for metal scientists, the study of anelastic effects furnishes a powerful tool for understanding many properties Of meta1s in terms of their microstructures or atomic interactions. In order to utilize the anelastic measurements to their fullest extent for acquiring such information, the experimental studies Of anelasticity must be interpreted by appropriate mathematical analysis. For a great many problems, however, the necessary information often Can be Obtained by general qualitative arguments. From the definition of anelasticity, any physical changes occurring in a specimen as a result Of the applied stress will cause anelastic effects if such physical changes are accompanied by a delayed change of elastic strain. Under these circumstances, we have the condition that strain lags behind the stress. We may mention the stress-induced transportation phenomena as examples. These include the stress-induced thermal diffusion,4-7 the stress-induced diffusion of particles,8-l2 and the stress-induced viscous slip along the microelements in metals.12-15 The differential equations describing the microscopic mechanism in these phenomena lead to relations in which stress is linear with respect to strain (and/or their derivatives). Thus if we Can demonstrate that the superposition principle is valid under the circumstances in which the anelastic effects are observed, we would expect in the macroscopic relation a linear relationship between stress and strain and their derivatives. This report is to describe a number of anelastic effects observed in alpha-iron, and an attempt is made to derive valuable information from a critical study of these

Jan 1, 1949

By T&apos Ke, ing-sui

Accoriding to the classical theory of elasticity, the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is represented by a straight line. such a representation implies that there is a linear relationship between strain and stress and also that strain is a single-valued function of stress and vice versa. Actually, such a one-to-one correspondence between strain and stress does not exist in real metals. A well-known example is the elastic after-effect on unloading. Another familiar example is damping or internal friction, that is, the dissipation of energy attending vibration. In an extensive review of such phenomena, zener1,2 has proposed the term "anelasticity" to denote that property of a solid in virtue of which strain is not a unique function of stress in the non-plastic region. The phenomena arising from anelasticity are called anelastic effects. The measurements on anelastic effects are important in many fields of metals technology. The, in precise instruments such as watch springs, difficulties often arise from the slight dimensional changes after fabrication. The internal friction or damping capacity of metals is often an important factor in deciding whether they are appropriate for instruments in which there are accompanying vibrations.3 However, for metal scientists, the study of anelastic effects furnishes a powerful tool for understanding many properties Of meta1s in terms of their microstructures or atomic interactions. In order to utilize the anelastic measurements to their fullest extent for acquiring such information, the experimental studies Of anelasticity must be interpreted by appropriate mathematical analysis. For a great many problems, however, the necessary information often Can be Obtained by general qualitative arguments. From the definition of anelasticity, any physical changes occurring in a specimen as a result Of the applied stress will cause anelastic effects if such physical changes are accompanied by a delayed change of elastic strain. Under these circumstances, we have the condition that strain lags behind the stress. We may mention the stress-induced transportation phenomena as examples. These include the stress-induced thermal diffusion,4-7 the stress-induced diffusion of particles,8-l2 and the stress-induced viscous slip along the microelements in metals.12-15 The differential equations describing the microscopic mechanism in these phenomena lead to relations in which stress is linear with respect to strain (and/or their derivatives). Thus if we Can demonstrate that the superposition principle is valid under the circumstances in which the anelastic effects are observed, we would expect in the macroscopic relation a linear relationship between stress and strain and their derivatives. This report is to describe a number of anelastic effects observed in alpha-iron, and an attempt is made to derive valuable information from a critical study of these

Jan 1, 1949

By James W. Shaffer

Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element and forms 8% of the earth's crust. Because of its chemical activity it does not occur in nature in a metallic form but principally in the silicates, feldspar, mica, shale, and clay. Bauxitic raw materials-bauxitic clay, aluminous laterite, and bauxite-develop from these aluminum silicate sources. Bauxite and aluminous laterite are naturally occurring mixtures of aluminum hydroxides and mineral impurities, and they are the major sources of aluminum. End Uses Bauxite is the basic ore of the aluminum industry. It is refined into aluminum hydroxide and calcined for feed stock to electrolytic smelters. Over 90% of the tonnage mined is refined and smelted into aluminum. The total tonnage consumed by other industries is small in comparison, but bauxite and alumina are important for the manufacture of refractories, ceramics, chemicals, abrasives, pharmaceuticals, catalysts, cements, dessicants, and flame retardants. Some aluminum-containing industrial products are made from clays and other materials but the majority originate from bauxite directly or from aluminum hydroxide and alumina refined from bauxite. Lateritic type bauxite is also used as building and decorative stone. Geology Mineralogy and Properties Bauxite is a mineral raw material composed principally of one or more aluminum hydroxide minerals and impurities of silica, iron oxide, titania, and other elements in minor or trace amounts. The important aluminum hydroxide minerals are gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore. Bayerite, nordstrandite, and tucanite are naturally occurring aluminum hydroxides but are rare and not commercially important. Mixtures of gibbsite and boehmite are common, boehmite and diaspore less common, and gibbsite and diaspore rare. Gibbsite is aluminum trihydroxide. Boehmite and diaspore are aluminum oxide hydroxides and have essentially the same composition, but diaspore has a greater hardness and a more tightly bonded and denser atomic structure. Although not technically correct, the commercial terms trihydrate and monohydrate are frequently used to distinguish types of bauxite. If bauxite is all or nearly all gibbsite, it is referred to as a trihydrate ore; if boehmite or diaspore or a mixture of both are the dominant minerals, the bauxite is called a monohydrate ore. If substantial amounts of both gibbsite and boehmite are present, the bauxite is frequently referred to as a mixed ore. Properties of major bauxite minerals are shown in Table 1. Silica, iron oxides, and titania are major impurities always present in deposits of bauxitic raw materials.. Silica impurities usually occur as clay minerals, micaceous minerals, or quartz, but cristobalite and feldspar are found in some deposits. The most common clay minerals are kaolins; however, illites and chlorites are often found in small quantities. Varying proportions of aluminum, iron, and clay minerals make bauxite, aluminous laterite, ferruginous laterite, and bauxitic clay deposits gradational with each other. Hematite and goethite are the common iron mineral impurities in many bauxites. Magnetite and ilmenite occur in deposits derived from basic igneous rocks. Other iron minerals associated with bauxite are maghemite, pyrite, siderite, and marcasite. The titanium minerals found in bauxites are anatase, leucoxene, rutile, ilmenite, titaniferous

Jan 1, 1983

CHARGING of an open-hearth heat is begun as soon as possible after the previous heat has been tapped. Ordinarily, about 40 min is required to drain and dress the furnace hearth, make up the taphole, and perform routine repairs of the banks. Repairs to the upper back wall and to the front wall and jambs can ordinarily be done while the first scrap charge is being heated and are therefore allowed to wait in order to save furnace time. Any major repairs required on the hearth or other parts of the furnace necessitate longer delays because such repairs must be made while the furnace is empty. Although charging practice varies considerably in detail with the type and proportions of scrap and iron used, many factors are common to all varieties of charge. Such general considerations are dealt with first. CHARGING EQUIPMENT AND STOCK HANDLING The physical equipment available for loading and weighing the stock, transporting it to the furnace, and charging it, may have a major effect on charging practice. Limestone, scrap, and all other solid melting stock are charged mechanically by means of equipment illustrated in Fig 2-1. The charging of hot metal is shown in- the background of this figure. Mechanical equipment and plant layout for stock handling are described in Chapter 1. It is generally desirable to charge the scrap about as fast as the physical volume can be put into the furnace. Charging scrap that is too heavy or adding the charge too rapidly (less than 45 min) may be detrimental to melting rate because of excessive chilling of the entire furnace system and also because of poor conduction of heat to the lower layers in the furnace; but the more common problem is the reverse one of charging light scrap fast enough to maintain a normal heat time. A limiting factor may be the height to which the scrap may he piled in the fur-

Jan 1, 1964

By J. L. Craig, C. L. Edwards, M. D. Harper, J. M. Ray

The Los Alamos National Laboratory executed 19 intermediate scale cratering experiments in oil shale at the Colony Mine in Garfield County, Colorado. These experiments have led to a better under- standing of fracture characteristics and fragmentation of & - oil shale by use of a conventional high explosive. Geologic site characterization included detailed mapping, coring, and sample analyses. Site-specific geology was observed to be a major influence on the resulting crater geometry. The joint patterns at the experimental site frequently defined the final crater symmetry. Secondary influences included vugs, lithology changes, and grade fluctuations in the local stratigraphy. Most experiments, in both the rib and floor, were conducted to obtain data to investigate the fragmentation results within the craters. The rubble was screened for fragment- size distributions. Geologic features in proximity to the explosive charge had minimal effect on the rubble due to the overpowering effect of the detonation. However, these same features became more influential on the fracture and rubble characteristics with greater distances from the shothole. Postshot cores revealed a direct relationship between the grade of the oil shale and its susceptibility to fracturing. The Colony Mine experiments have demonstrated the significant role of geology in high explosive/oil shale interaction. It is probable that this role will have to be considered for larger applications to blast patterns and potential problems in retort stability in the future of oil shale development.

Jan 1, 1983

By Thomas Egleston

The process of lixiviating silver ores, which do or do not contain gold, by means of hyposnlphite of soda is likely to assume a very great importance in the West, the conditions being such that while it is applicable to very rich ores which do not contain lead enough to smelt, it is also equally applicable to many ores that are either too poor or too impure to be treated by any other process. Western ores are generally divided into four classes: those which contain copper enough to be smelted for copper, from which the gold and silver is extracted in the wet way, as is the practice of the Boston and Colorado works; those in which there is a large quantity of lead, which can be smelted for lead, and the gold and silver extracted from it; ores in which there is neither copper nor lead enough to allow of a process of smelting, but which can be treated in pans, these ores being " free milling " if they require no metallurgical treatment, or '(rebellious" if they have to be roasted with or without the addition of salt; and ores which do not contain enough either of lead or copper for smelting, which are poor both in silver and gold, contain large amounts of sulphur, arsenic, and antimony, and cannot be treated in many places in the West by any of these processes. Roasting with salt would convert the base metals as well as the silver into chlorides, and would give in the amalgamation a very base bullion, and the expense of the process would be SO great that the margin of profit would be very small, the reason being that for the ordinary process of pan-amalgamation, which is the only one suitable for ores containing small amounts of the base metals, and poor in silver and gold, the cost of a plant for milling is so large as not to justify the expense of treating such ores. The electrolytic processes which have been partially successful in Europe have not been tried 'here. While in the near future they will undoubtedly be used, it is hardly possible to consider them now.

Jan 1, 1884

By T. D. Mueller, H. Dykstra

This paper describes a method for obtaining compositions of gas and oil phases in equilibrium with each other at a given reservoir temperature and pressure as lean or enriched gas is injected into a reservoir oil not in equilibrium with the gas. The method is based on calculation of equilibrium constants, K, from the equation log Kp = A + B F, where p is pressure and F is component characterization factor. A and B are constants that vary with a composition parameter. The paper explains how A and B could be determined with a minimum amount of data. The method consists of calculating equilibrium constants as a function of liquid composition and using the K's to calculate changes in compositiort of injection gas as it successively contacts original resetvoir oil at the gas-oil front and the change in composition of reservoir oil as it is successively contacted by the injection gas in the vicinity of an injection well. An iterative process is required. Two examples of the method are given which show how oil and gas compositions and properties are calculated with the aid of a computer. INTRODUCTION The calculation of recovery from lean-gas or enriched-gas injection into a saturated or under-saturated reservoir oil requires a knowledge of how phase properties change in a reservoir between injection well and producing well. To determine the phase compositions or properties experimentally would be difficult and time consuming, especially if one wanted to look at the effect of various injection gas compositions. For some fields an engineer would want to make preliminary calculations on the economics of gas injection before he makes the decision to spend a corrsiderable sum of money for laboratory work to obtain the necessary fluid properties. A method for calculatine compositions and properties based on a minimum of laboratory data is described. The minimum amount of data required is injection gas and reservoir oil composition and injection gas solubility as a function of pressure for an undersaturated oil, or the compositions of mixtures of reservoir fluid with two or more enriched gases, which mixtures have a bubble-point pressure that is the same as the expected average displacement pressure. On the other hand, if the economics appear to be attractive, more laboratory data can be obtained in the form of equilibrium constants for three or more mixtures of the reservoir fluid and injection gases. The method is based on the calculation of K's from the equation, log Kp = A + B F, where K is equilibrium constant, p is pressure and F is component characterization factor. This method of plotting K data by means of the above equation is described by Hoffman, Crump and Hocott.1 A and B are constants that vary with a composition parameter. It is shown how experimental data are used to determine how A and B vary with composition. BASIS OF METHOD EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS Equilibrium constant (K) data are required for this method. The K of each component is obtained from an equation that gives the product of K and pressure as a function of component characterization factor. The characterization factor F = b(l/Tb — l/T), where b is a constant characteristic of a given component, Tb is the boiling point in OR at atmospheric pressure of the given component, and T is the temperature of the system in OR. This method of plotting K data is described by Hoffman, Crump and Hocott.l The straight-line equation of the log Kp - F plot is log hp = log Kop +BFi, where Kop is at F =0, i designates the component, and B is the slope of the line. The factor F can be

Jan 1, 1966

By G. S. Hume

RECENT developments in the Turner Valley gas and oil field, 40 mi. southwest of Calgary, Alberta, have indicated a large producing crude-oil area. Drilling be¬gan in Turner Valley in 1913 but no major developments took place until the fall of 1924, when Royalite No. 4 well at a depth of 3740 ft. in the upper part of the Paleozoic (Mississippian) limestone obtained a production - of 20,000 M cu. ft. of gas with a content of about one imperial gallon of naphtha (73° A.P.I.) per M cu. ft. This well produced as much as 600 bbl. of naphtha per day, and until abandonment in 1934 produced 911,313 bbl., which together with the gas sold was valued at about $5,000.000.

Jan 1, 1937

By Charles B. Dudley

THEO. N. ELY, Esq., Superintendent of Motive Power. DEAR SIR: It is now nearly three years since my first report to you on the subject of steel rails was written. That report, as you will remember, dealt principally with the question of the relation between the chemical composition and physical properties of steel rails and their power to resist crushing and fracture in actual service. Other matters were referred to or touched upon in that report, but the main question was, Why do some rails crush or break in service while others do not? You will doubtless remember that the principal conclusion arrived at was, that the softer rails are less liable to crush or break in service than the hard ones. Or, in other words, so far as conclusions could be drawn from the chemical analysis and physical test of 25 samples of steel rails which had actually been in service, these conclusions were that those rails which have the smaller amounts of carbon, phosphorus, silicon, and manganese are less liable to crush or break in service than those which have larger amounts of these elements. Or, again, looked at in the light * At the Lake George meeting of the Institute in October, 1878, I had the honor of presenting to the Institute, through the kind permission of the officers of. the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, the results of a study of twenty-five samples of steel rails, which had all been in actual service. Considerable discussion followed the publication of that paper, and there seemed to be a strong disinclination, especially on the part of the steel-rail manufacturers, to accept the conclusions presented. One of the principal objections urged against the conclusions drawn was, that they were based on too few samples; in other words, that no conclusions safe to act upon could be drawn from the examination of twenty-five rails. In view of this criticism it was decided to repeat the investigation with a larger number of samples, and with the aid of the experience gained in the first investigation. The results of this second study of steel rails are, by the permission of the officers of 'the Pennsylvania. Railroad Company, herewith presented to the Institute, with the sincere desire that they may aid in adding to our knowledge of this most important product. Like the previous paper, this is in the form of a report to one of the officers of the company, which will account for the style, and the manner of presenting the data

Jan 1, 1881

By Albert Zima

ACCORDING to recently published statistics, it is predicted that as much oil must be produced during the next 16 years as has been produced during the past 75, in order to satisfy the high rate of consumption of petroleum products. During 1934, over 17,000 oil wells were completed in the United States, and it is expected that over 20,000 additional wells will be drilled during the current year. Were it not for the remarkable progress made during recent years in the improvement of drilling technique and in the development of equipment used in the production phase of the oil industry, it is doubtful whether sufficient oil could be produced to meet present requirements. A few years ago, wells seldom were deeper than 3500 to 4000 ft., owing to the limitations of the drilling methods and equipment employed. Today, however, through the application of scientific drilling methods and the adaptation of modern equipment and improved materials, many wells range from 6000 to 8000 ft, in depth, and a few recent completions exceed 10,000 feet.

Jan 1, 1935