Search Documents

Jan 1, 1958

By P. P. Scott, George C. Howard

A field remedial procedure utilizing a kerosene-cement slurry as a water plug-off agent in fractured formations was evaluated both in the laboratory and in the field. This procedure has proved to be capable of effectively shutting off water without causing permanent impairment of the oil production. Success was attributed to the fact that an immobile cement slurry, when placed in a water-producing strata, will set and form an impermeable barrier; whereas when placed in an oil-producing section the cement will retain a relatively high permeability and may be removed by acidizing. INTRODUCTION One of the most perplexing problems facing the oil industry is the selective exclusion of water production from oil or gas-producing wells. This problem has been studied by many investigators in an attempt to develop a material that is not only capable of reducing water production but is also capable of being selective in that it will not impair oil production in either fractured or intergranular type reservoirs. A study of these two types of formations indicated that two distinct types of materials for controlling water production might be required — a completely liquid plugging agent for intergranular formations and a semi-liquid or slurry type plugging agent for fractured formations. This paper is limited to the control of water production from fractured formations. A common source of water in the vicinity of oil bearing rock reservoirs is water which previously has entered and, because of its higher density, generally lies near the bottom of the formation. When the deepest point of penetration of a well into such an oil and water-bearing formation is above the level of the water, and the dynamical gradients due to the flow of oil overbalance the difference in densities between oil and water, water production becomes a problem. Then the water level rises in the shape of a cone and is produced from the lower depths. Other investigators1,2,3,4 have developed theories which define the pressure gradients and contours of this cone in a homogeneous formation and have shown that the placement of a plug in the bottom of a well is only slightly effective in temporarily reducing the flow of water. Assuming that the manner of flow of bottom water from fractured formations to a well is generally similar to the flow in homogeneous formations, then it would be expected that some form of coning, perhaps of less symmetry, would also occur. Then, because of the similarity of the manner of flow of water, placement of a vertical plug in a fractured formation would also probably be ineffectual for controlling water production. However, as has been shown by electric model flow study,' the placing of a plug in a well and an impermeable horizontal streak in the formation might prove to be a means for materially reducing or even eliminating water production in a fractured formation. An indication of the difference in effectiveness between horizontal and vertical plugs based on theory developed from study of the flow of water and oil in rock reservoirs is depicted in Fig. 1. These curves show the expected

Jan 1, 1955

By Harold B. Ewoldt, Robert R. Reynolds

THE Upper Mississippi Valley zinc-lead district covers an area of some 2000 sq ml located in the southwestern corner of Wisconsin, the north-western corner of Illinois and a portion of eastern Iowa around the city of Dubuque. Commercial deposits of lead and zinc have been mined in Iowa but the major discoveries during the past eight years have been made in Jo Daviess County, Ill, and LaFayette County, Wis. Activities in the state of Illinois are centered about the city of Galena, while those in Wisconsin are located a few miles south and west of the town of Shullsburg.

Jan 3, 1951

By R. W. Cahn, C. D. Graham

Two predictions of the oriented growth theory of recrystallization textures have been tested by measuring the orientation dependence of the rate of growth of a single grain into a strained single crystal of aluminum, and determining the orientations of artificially and spontaneously nucleated grains growing preferentially into strained aluminum single crystals. Growth rates are found to be insensitive to orientation, except that new grains with orientations similar to the matrix or to a twin of the matrix have very low mobilities. Similarly, new grains growing preferentially into a strained crystal have random orientations, except that orientations near that of the matrix or its twins are avoided. The predictions of oriented growth theory are thus not confirmed. BASICALLY, the oriented growth theory of re-crystallization textures1 rests on the assumption that the rate of growth of a recrystallizing grain depends strongly on the orientation of the growing grain relative to the strained matrix into which it grows. In particular, the theory holds that in face-centered-cubic metals the orientation which corresponds to maximum growth rate is one in which the growing grain and the matrix are related by a rotation about a common <111> direction. The amount of rotation, as derived from several kinds of experiments,2-1 has been assigned various values, generally in the range between 20" and 40". (A <111> rotation of 60" is a twin relationship.) The conclusion that boundary migration rates depend strongly on orientation is based almost entirely on indirect evidence; there have been very few direct measurements of boundary migration rates as a function of orientation.* " The present investigation was undertaken to provide such measurements, to help make possible a decision between the oriented growth and oriented nilcleation theories of recrystal-lization textures. The basic experimental program consisted of measuring the rate of growth of a single recrystal-lizing grain consuming a strained single crystal, with the orientations of both grains preselected so that the effect of orientation on growth rate could be determined. A prerequisite for such an experiment is a strained single crystal which will support the growth of a new grain but which will not spontaneously nucleate new grains on heating. That is, the crystal must support the growth of a grain nucleated artificially, but contain no recrystalliza-tion nuclei which will become active at the testing temperature. Beck was apparently the first to note that such a condition could exist," and to make use of the condition for am experiment of the type described here.&apos; The present work was actually suggested, however, by a report of Tiedema". " that an aluminum single crystal strip, oriented with a (111) plane in the plane of the strip and a < 112> direction parallel to the tensile axis, would not recrystallize after 20 pet extension even when heated almost to the melting point, provided that the strip was heavily etched before being heated. This result could not be duplicated in the present work. In fact, it was found that any crystal which deformed in multiple slip (<100>, <112> and <111> orientations) underwent spontaneous nucleation after 15 pet extension, even if etched. However, crystals which deformed in single slip, and which did not develop heavy deformation bands, could be extended 15 pet without showing spontaneous nucleation at temperatures up to 600°C. Crystals oriented within about 10o of <110> which developed heavy deformation bands could be extended 10 pet without showing spontaneous nucleation. In all cases a heavy etch was required to prevent nucleation. Etching was necessary because of the presence of an oxide layer on the crystal surface at the time of straining, which leads to preferential nucleation at the surface.&apos;&apos; Grain Growth Rates Experimental Procedure and Results—Aluminum strips of 99.6 pet purity (principal impurities 0.19 pet Fe and 0.12 pet Si), 1 mm by 1 cm in cross section, were grown into single crystals of controlled orientation by the strain-anneal method of Fuji-wara.&apos;"&apos; " A sharp temperature gradient was maintained in the strips during growth by lowering them into a salt bath controlled at 650°C. Crystal orientations were determined by the etch-pit method of Barrett and Levenson" to an accuracy of ±2O. The crystals were extended by 10 or 15 pet in a simple hand operated tensile machine. Crystal orientations were rechecked after extension, and were found to be in agreement with the orientations predicted by the formula of Schmid and Boas." After extension, the grip ends of the single crystal specimen were cut off with a jeweller&apos;s saw, and the crystal heavily etched (at least 20 pet wt loss) in hot 10 pet Na or KOH solution. A region of severe local deformation was then introduced at one corner of the strip, usually by cutting off the corner with shears. Heating this end of the strip caused a large number of new grains to nucleate at the sheared edge. One of these grains grew to occupy the full width of the strip. The appearance of the strip at

Jan 1, 1957

By Jerry R. Johanson

The practical application of rolling theory to the design of roll presses is reviewed along with aspects of plant operations which must be considered to produce the required product economically. Appropriate parameters to scale up from laboratory tests to full- scale press operation and improvements possible in existing operations are discussed.

Jan 1, 1977

Jan 1, 1956

By James Norman, E. W. Gieseke

Spodumene is a lithium-bearing pyroxene, and is an important source of lithium compounds. Because of its high alumina and lithia content, it might be a desirable constituent of glass batches. The use of spodumene in ceramics will undoubtedly increase, as it has been shown that a mixture of the proper proportions of this mineral with soda feldspar and potash feldspar has a much lower maturing temperature upon firing than has any one of the three components. The mineral spodumene seldom occurs as pure mineral, but ordinarily with feldspars, mica and quartz. All spodumene-bearing rocks tested contained these minerals as gangue. Small amounts of iron and manganese oxides also were present, usually as stains on the silicate grains. Mica associated with the spodumene carried a considerable amount of lithia. This was discovered in flotation tailings, which, although virtually free of spodumene grains when examined microscopically, showed 0.4 to 0.5 per cent Li²O on chemical analysis. The lithia content of micas picked from the North Carolina spodumene rock was variable. Some samples contained little lithia, others more than 3 per cent. In 1938, under the supervision of Oliver C. Ralston,S the Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Tennessee Mineral Products Corporation, undertook to study the beneficiation of North Carolina spodumene by froth flotation. The Bureau had previously published investigations on the beneficiation of spodumene.2,3The methods described in the second publication3 did not give good results with badly weathered spodumene rock, so that more thorough investigation of the subject was warranted. Study of Method of Flotation Separation Most of the work on concentration of spodumene was done with rock from near King&apos;s Mountain, North Carolina. Rock from two

Jan 1, 1942

By James Norman, E. W. Gieseke

Spodumene is a lithium-bearing pyroxene, and is an important source of lithium compounds. Because of its high alumina and lithia content, it might be a desirable constituent of glass batches. The use of spodumene in ceramics will undoubtedly increase, as it has been shown that a mixture of the proper proportions of this mineral with soda feldspar and potash feldspar has a much lower maturing temperature upon firing than has any one of the three components. The mineral spodumene seldom occurs as pure mineral, but ordinarily with feldspars, mica and quartz. All spodumene-bearing rocks tested contained these minerals as gangue. Small amounts of iron and manganese oxides also were present, usually as stains on the silicate grains. Mica associated with the spodumene carried a considerable amount of lithia. This was discovered in flotation tailings, which, although virtually free of spodumene grains when examined microscopically, showed 0.4 to 0.5 per cent Li²O on chemical analysis. The lithia content of micas picked from the North Carolina spodumene rock was variable. Some samples contained little lithia, others more than 3 per cent. In 1938, under the supervision of Oliver C. Ralston,S the Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Tennessee Mineral Products Corporation, undertook to study the beneficiation of North Carolina spodumene by froth flotation. The Bureau had previously published investigations on the beneficiation of spodumene.2,3The methods described in the second publication3 did not give good results with badly weathered spodumene rock, so that more thorough investigation of the subject was warranted. Study of Method of Flotation Separation Most of the work on concentration of spodumene was done with rock from near King&apos;s Mountain, North Carolina. Rock from two

Jan 1, 1942

Jan 1, 1957

By N. C. J. Ros

The paper deals with pressure gradients occurring in flowing and gas-lift wells, a knowledge of which can be applied to the determination of optimum flow-string dimensions and to the design of gas-lift installations. The study is based on a pressure-balance equation for the pressure gradient. It appears that a pressure-gradient correlation of general validity must essentially consist of two parts-—one part being a correlation for liquid hold-up and the other part being one for wall friction. Dimensional analysis indicates that both liquid hold-up and wall friction are related to nine dimensionless groups. It is shown that in the field of interest only four groups are really important. On the basis of these four groups a restricted experimental program could be selected that nevertheless covered practically all conditions encountered in oil wells. This experimental program has been carried out in a laboratory installation. Three essentially different flow regimes were found. The pressure gradients in these regious are presented in the form of a set of correlations. Comparison of these correlations with a few available oilfield data showed excellent agreement. INTRODUCTION Prediction of the pressure drop in the flow string of a well is a widely known problem in oilfield practice. Accurate data on the pressure gradient of a simultaneous flow of gas and liquid in a vertical pipe are especially useful for the determination of optimum flow-string dimensions. It is well known that with moderate gas and liquid flows such a vertical string acts as a "negative restriction". The pressure drop decreases (1) when the throughput through a given pipe increases, and (2) when at a given throughput the cross-sectional area is decreased. The reason is that, with increasing velocities, the flow becomes more agitated so that the gas slips relatively more slowly through the liquid. With the resulting increase in gas content in the string, the static head decreases. When the area becomes very small, however, the high velocities entail great wall friction, which causes an increase in pressure drop. For a given flow, therefore, minimal pressure drop is obtained by using a certain cross section. This means that, in principle, each well can be provided with an optimum flow string for minimum pressure drop and, hence, maximum possible production rate. The procedure for the selection of the optimum string has been discussed by Gilbert.&apos; A necessary tool in the procedure, however, is accurate knowledge of the pressure gradient to be expected for various values of the governing variables. Another application of pressure-gradient data lies in the field of gas-lift practice: they provide a means of determining the optimum gas-injection rate, optimum injection pressure and optimum injection depth. Much work has already been done in the study of the pressure gradient of vertical gas-liquid flow. Poett-mann and Carpenter2 presented a pressure-gradient correlation based on measurements in wells. This correlation has been found to provide accurate predictions in high-pressure wells and in high-production wells for flow through both tubing and annuli.2-5 However, when their method is checked on low pressure-low production wells or on wells with viscous crudes, serious discrepancies are found. As we shall see in the next section, this is due to the fact that their correlation factor, representing all irreversible energy losses, is given as a function of only one correlation group. Some important variables, such as gas-liquid ratio and liquid viscosity, are not incorporated in this group so that their specific effects are not accounted for. To study also the mechanism of vertical gas-liquid flow outside the ranges covered by the Poettmann-Carpenter publication and extensions, a laboratory investigation has been carried out. This study is founded on a pressure-gradient equation that is based on a pressure balance. To reduce the number of test runs required, a dimensional analysis has been carried out, followed by a selection of relevant dimensionless groups. These groups guided a subsequent experimental study, and with their aid the experimental program could be minimized while still covering the majority of the situations encountered in oilfield practice. In this paper the choice of a formula for the pressure gradient is discussed first. This is followed by a brief description of the experimental setup. Subsequently, the dimensional analysis is discussed and the relevant dimensionless groups are selected, resulting in the experimental program required. The general relationships of pressure gradient and liquid hold-up are then described; various flow patterns and a certain flow instability (so-called "heading") are discussed and a set of correlations is presented which shows a good agreement with the measurements and a few available field

By Edward F. Winter, C. E. Ruoff

A silicon solid-state array image scanner is described. This paper deals with structural and performance properties of the array which basically consists of PIN photo and gating diodes, and low capacitance isolation diodes. Each chip of the array is composed of an 8 by 9 matrix of photo detector cells; each cell contains one each of the three diode types mentioned. This x-y matrix is read a column at a time with an access delay of approximately 100 nsec per column. It is designed to detect the presence or absence of illumination within 10-mil diam image spots located on a 15- by 15-mil grid. Radiant power level of an illuminated spot is low; of interest is the range around I uw with a of 8400g Structural improvements to the original array which will result THE purpose of this paper is to describe the results of a solid state scanner exploratory development activity. The scanner is intended to sense the presence or absence of low-level illumination falling upon a matrix of 10-mil wide squares arranged on a 15- by 15-mil x-y grid pattern. The light of interest has a wavelength of 8400, characteristic of radiation emitted from a GaAs lasing diode. This wavelength matches well the spectral absorption of silicon,&apos; thus the well-developed silicon processing technology can be applied to fabricating large integrated arrays of PIN photocells to sense the radiation. The illumination state of the cells of the array is read, one column at a time, by addressing a drive line of the particular column in question and examining the state of those sense lines which are orthogonal to the drive Lines of in greater sensitivity at various wavelengths, both above and below 8400Å, and in greater speed are presented. These include variations in diffusion depth, resistivity of N and P regions, isolation techniques, and packaging. Trade-offs between access speed, cycle frequency, and sensitivity are discussed. A packaging approach to achieving an array composed of several chips is described. Requirements on this package are: 1) maintenance of 15- by 15-mil pitch of the light sensitive cell position, therefore positional accuracy of mounted 8 by 9 cell photo detector chips; 2) maintenance of inherent high array speed even though signal levels are low through high density close proximity mounting of monolithic sense amplifier circuitry. the array. One bank of N sense amplifiers is required, where N is the number of photodiode cells in each column of the array. CELL AND CHI" STRUCTURE A photograph of a single monolithic cell is shown in Fig. 1. Each cell is composed of three junctions, an isolation junction, a logic or blocking diode junction, and a photodiode junction; all of these junctions are connected electrically by a common N region. An electrical schematic of four cells of the array is shown in Fig. 2 with the associated driver and sense amplifier circuits in block diagram form. Note the common cathode configuration of the three diodes of each cell. Fig. 3, a diagram of the cell vertical struc ture, illustrates how the electrical configuration of

Jan 1, 1970

By C. S. Corbett

There is much comment at present in the ranks of the oil industry regarding unit operation of oil fields and the benefit that would accrue if it could be extensively applied. It seems certain that, as an immediate corrective of the present situation, overproduction could be effectively curtailed with all the advantages of proper conservation of petroleum resources and with no important loss to anyone connected with the industry. Unit Operation in Certain Foreign Fields Many an oil operator in America would doubtless like to have exclusive control of one or more oil-bearing structures for development in accordance with the economic position of the industry and especially in accordance with the best production practice known. A few operators now have this privilege, particularly in certain foreign fields, and are following lines of procedure which show that they are aware of the great opportunity that is theirs. We find in an article by Professor Strigeoff,1 and in a paper read by Captain Comins2 before the American Petroleum Institute, the outlines of procedure adopted, respectively, by the Soviet Government for the nationalized Russian oil fields and by the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. for its fields in Persia. Comprehensive plans for the unit operation of other oil fields may have been described publicly but no such descriptions have come to the attention of the writer. New fields are coming more and more into the hands of single operators or of a few who control large activities and who appreciate fully the need for cooperative action and are willing to forego the lure of a large quick profit from high flush production in order to secure the advantage of better stabilization in the industry and a larger though more deferred profit by operating the field as a unit. Much can be done toward efficient development of an oil field controlled by a few operators who are willing to cooperate for that purpose, but the best result can be obtained only by pooling their interests in the field

Jan 1, 1930

By Fred J. Wright

ORIGINALLY, mining machines were actuated by purely mechanical mechanisms comprising cams, levers and gear trains, which became more and more complex as demands were made for additional operations that would increase mine tonnage. To simplify these intricate machines, development engineers began utilizing the principles of high-pressure hydraulics long employed for the control of various machine tools. The resulting specificially developed hydraulic systems are now literally the heart of the mining machine. During World War No. 2, very little fundamental change in design was made in existing mining machines, but because of the recognition of the merits of hydraulic application to the machines of war, it is reasonably certain that hydraulics will be applied to mining machines in the future to a much greater extent. This potential future indicates that a more thorough knowledge of hydraulics and its maintenance must be incorporated in mine operation. Contamination of Oil Maintenance of high-pressure hydraulic equipment varies considerably with respect to mine practice and conditions. The success or failure is largely dependent upon the hydraulic fluid and its care. Since all successful hydraulic systems have been designed around the use of mineral oil as the fluid, a complete analysis of this prime factor should be made to make clear the requirements of the fluid in a hydraulic system. Contamination of Oil Manufacturers of mining machinery usually have specified an S.A.E. rating or viscosity index of the, proper mineral oil for use with their respective machines without considering the fact that many oils will meet these specifications but will not give the desired life or efficient operation. Hydraulic fluid should be specified as a good grade of mineral oil, such as turbine oil, having rust and oxidation resistance. It must have high chemical stability, high lubricity, and proper viscosity. These factors will minimize maintenance costs by reducing wear and the consequent replacement of parts, and at the same time will lower costs for the oil by extending its life. Bulk purchases of oil should be limited to small sealed containers provided with a proper pouring spout, thus reducing the possibility of contamination of the oil before it reaches the mining machine. The introduction of foreign matter, such as sand, water, coal dust and residue oil left in filling containers, will cause untold damage and maintenance expense. Sand, being one of the best natural abrasives, will soon wear the close tolerances of the various hydraulic mechanisms to an extent that will necessitate complete replacement. Water is considered normally insoluble in oil, but because of the churning action of a hydraulic system water is broken down to particles so small that they remain in suspension. This suspension is known as

Jan 1, 1946

By S. S. Shen, M. J. Pool, P. J. Spencer

Heats of solution of silver and copper in dilute Ag-Cu-Sn alloys at 720°K have been determined using a liquid metal-solution calorieter. Values of the se2f-interaction coefficient n AgAghave been calculated at constant copper concentrations and n Cu Cuhas been determined at constant silver contents. The reliability of the experimental data is shown by the very good agreement between nCujAg and ij &$; these interaction coefficients have experimental values of -9100 and - 9590 cal per g-atom, respectively. Certain solution models are shown to be inadequate for prediction of solute interaction coefficients in dilute Ag-Cu-Sn alloys. In a previous publication&apos; the results of a thermody-namic study of dilute Ag-Au-Sn alloys were presented. The present work represents the continuation of a program to investigate dilute alloys of the noble metals with tin and in particular is concerned with solute interactions in the Ag-Cu-Sn system. By determination of the magnitude and sign of the various interaction coefficients in dilute alloys it is possible to gain some understanding of the different types of solute-solute and so lute-solvent bonding changes that occur as the solute concentrations are varied. Hence systematic studies of alloys with similar physical characteristics as regards size, structure, electronegativity, and so forth, of their components can contribute a great deal to present theoretical knowledge of solutions. The recent definition of an enthalpy interaction coefficient, 11, by Lupis and Elliott2 is of particular value in calorimetric studies such as the present one: where j and i are solutes and s is the solvent; Si is the relative partial molar enthalpy of component i and x represents the mole fraction of solute or solvent. Values of ?Hi can be obtained directly by solution calorimetry and data for n are thus easily determined, often with a high degree of accuracy. ?Hi is related to the relative partial molar enthalpy at infinite dilution, ?Hi and to the enthalpy interaction coefficients by the expression: ?Hi?Hi + X;nz+ ... [2] The aim of the present work was to determine the self-interaction coefficients n AgAgand 178: in alloys of different compositions and also to establish values for n Agcg| and ncuAg. Since it is a thermodynamic requirement (resulting from the Maxwell-type relationships which can be applied to partial molar properties) that nAgcu and ncuAg should be equal, a further aim of this study was to demonstrate the agreement between experiment and theory. EXPERIMENTAL A description of the liquid metal-solution calorimeter used in this research has already been published,3 and no further details of its construction and operation will therefore be given here. Copper supplied by the American Smelting and Refining Co. was indicated by them as being 99.999 pct pure, and the silver obtained from A. D. Mackay, Inc., was also quoted as being 99.999 pct pure. A solvent bath consisting of between 70 and 80 g of 99.99 pct pure Sn was used for each series of experimental drops. Its weight was accurately determined and the appropriate amounts of copper or silver were added to give alloys of the desired composition. Approximately 0.00125 g-atom additions were used for determinations of the heat of solution of silver in the bath, while, for copper, specimens consisting of approximately 0.0015 g-atom were used. The heat capacity of the bath was determined at regular intervals during a series of drops using tin or tungsten calibration samples. The heats of solution of silver and copper in pure tin were first determined as a function of their concentration in order to establish the self-interaction coefficients 7AgAg and ncucu Alloys containing a constant 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, and 0.04 mole fraction of copper were then used to study 17:: in alloys of different copper content, while alloys of the same mole fractions of silver were used to determine equivalent data for 178: at constant silver concentrations. The composition of the bath was held at the desired copper or silver concentration by making calculated additions of the appropriate solute throughout the experiment. From the limiting values of ?HAg in the constant copper content alloys it was possible to study ?HAg as a function of xCu and hence to determine 42:. A similar analysis of the re, values permitted calculation of nAgcu. Heat content and heat capacity data from Hultgren et al* were used to calculate heat of solution values from the measured heat effects at the experimental temperature of 720°K. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Determinations of ?HAg. A preliminary investigation of the heat of solution of silver in pure tin at 720°K was first made in order to establish the value of nAgAg before additions of copper were made and also to compare the value of ?HOAg(l) with that obtained in the previous study of Ag-Au-Sn alloys.&apos; Then the heat of solution of silver in Cu-Sn alloys was investigated as a func-

Jan 1, 1970

By L. A. Geoffrion, R. H. Perkins, J. C. Biery

Densities of cerium metal and several lour-melting binary cerium alloys were measured over the range 25° to 800°C. A rolumeter, using NaK as working fluid, was used to obtain the data. The cerium, Ce-Co, Ce-Ni, and Ce-Cu alloys all exhibited an increase in density on melting, while a Ce-Mn alloy expanded on melting. FOR the proper design of a nuclear reactor, the change in density of the fuel with temperature must be known. This is especially important in a system utilizing molten fuel, such as LAMPRE (Los Alamos Molten Plutonium Reactor Experiment), since a relatively large change in density usually occurs during the solid-liquid transition. The fuel for LAMPRE is a Pu-2.5 wt pct Fe alloy with a melting temperature of 410°C. However, limitations in reactor design with this fuel have led to consideration of other plutonium-containing alloys for use in future generations of this type of reactor. Several ternary alloys containing plutonium and cerium as two components have satisfactorily low melting points. The system that at the present time appears to be most acceptable is Pu-Ce-Co; it exhibits little change in melting temperature with wide variation in plutonium concentration. Other alloys that have received some consideration contain nickel, copper, and manganese as the third constituent. The proposed fuel alloys are difficult to handle experimentally in the 25" to 800°C temperature range since they oxidize readily, react with many solvents, and contain a poisonous fissionable material. In addition, in this temperature range the alloys pass through the solid-liquid transition. Several techniques are available for measuring the densities and volume coefficients of expansion of solids or liquids. However, the only apparatus that appears suitable for measuring expansion coefficients over this temperature range and through the phase transition is a volumeter. In a volumeter, the indicating medium must be essentially inert to and insoluble in the material being studied. It must also possess a low vapor pressure over the operating temperature range, and its coefficient of expansion must be accurately known. One material that is satisfactory in nearly all of these respects is the alloy Na-78 wt pct K, which melts at -10°C and has a vapor pressure of 860 mm Hg at 800°C. This relatively high vapor pressure at 800°C requires an overpressure of an inert gas to prevent boiling. While a volumeter is capable of determining accurately the volume coefficients of expansion of materials, it cannot be used for absolute density measurements. Therefore, a density determination at a known temperature must be coupled with the volumeter measurements to give all the desired data. The weight-loss technique using immersion in bromobenzene at room temperature proved to be satisfactory. The preliminary work that was done on this experimental program involved developing and calibrating the equipment, and measuring the densities and volume coefficients of expansion of cerium and some low-melting binary cerium alloys. The complications that are caused with the introduction of plutonium into the system were avoided until the equipment was proved to be satisfactory and until experience was gained in its operation. It is this first phase of the experimental work that is described in this report. DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT AND OPERATING PROCEDURE The NaK volumeter is shown schematically in Fig. 1. Basically, the equipment consists of two weld-sealed stainless-steel containers of nearly identical volume. One container holds a tantalum crucible and the specimen being measured; the other contains a tantalum crucible and a tantalum specimen used as a control reference material. To avoid temperature gradients, the bombs are located in a copper block inside the furnace. Stainless-steel capillaries of equal length and volume connect each stainless-steel container to a glass viewing capillary. The stainless-steel containers, stainless-steel capillaries, and a portion of the glass capillaries are filled with NaK (22 wt pct Na-78 wt pct K). The NaK/gas interface in the glass capillary is viewed with a cathetometer which is accurate to *0.5 mm. The cathetometer readings are used to calculate the volume changes of the samples during a run. This volumeter is basically the same as that described by F. Knight in Plutonium 1960. 2 However, changes in equipment design and operating procedure were made to eliminate some major operating difficulties. These changes are summarized below. 1) In filling the manometer with NaK, gas was frequently entrained in the system. Evacuation of the system before filling failed to eliminate the en-

Jan 1, 1965

By John T. Galey

In all, 210 wellst were completed in southwestern Pennsylvania during 1939, which is 59 more than were drilled during the preceding year. Of this number, 137 were gas wells, which is a considerable increase from the 81 completed during 1938. Only 25 oil wells were completed, as against 28 in the previous year, and 28 dry holes, 6 more than last year. Shallow Development—Gas The increase in the number of gas wells is largely the result of a search for additional gas in Armstrong and Indiana Counties. Although a considerable number of wells were drilled in the latter county, the majority of them produced less than 100 M cu. ft. initial open flow. In Armstrong County, a new pool was opened in Cowanshannock township, producing from the third Bradford sand. Several large wells were obtained there, one of which produced an initial of nearly 12 million cu. ft., with a reservoir pressure of 1100 Ib. However, the productive area has been fairly well outlined by further drilling and shows that the pool covers only about 800 acres. The sand is 20 to 30 ft. thick, and probably has 5 to 6 ft. of pay. Thus this reserve is not an important one. Several wells were found in Menallen township, Fayette County, where the Big Injun sand has been having a play for the past three years, but the activity there is much less than a year ago. Oil On the west side of the Bradford sand gas pool, Cowanshannock township, Armstrong County, a well was drilled which flowed 100 bbl. the first day from the Tiona sand. The probability is that this well is a freak, as the Tiona has been drilled within a fairly close distance on every

Jan 1, 1940

By John T. Galey

In all, 210 wellst were completed in southwestern Pennsylvania during 1939, which is 59 more than were drilled during the preceding year. Of this number, 137 were gas wells, which is a considerable increase from the 81 completed during 1938. Only 25 oil wells were completed, as against 28 in the previous year, and 28 dry holes, 6 more than last year. Shallow Development—Gas The increase in the number of gas wells is largely the result of a search for additional gas in Armstrong and Indiana Counties. Although a considerable number of wells were drilled in the latter county, the majority of them produced less than 100 M cu. ft. initial open flow. In Armstrong County, a new pool was opened in Cowanshannock township, producing from the third Bradford sand. Several large wells were obtained there, one of which produced an initial of nearly 12 million cu. ft., with a reservoir pressure of 1100 Ib. However, the productive area has been fairly well outlined by further drilling and shows that the pool covers only about 800 acres. The sand is 20 to 30 ft. thick, and probably has 5 to 6 ft. of pay. Thus this reserve is not an important one. Several wells were found in Menallen township, Fayette County, where the Big Injun sand has been having a play for the past three years, but the activity there is much less than a year ago. Oil On the west side of the Bradford sand gas pool, Cowanshannock township, Armstrong County, a well was drilled which flowed 100 bbl. the first day from the Tiona sand. The probability is that this well is a freak, as the Tiona has been drilled within a fairly close distance on every

Jan 1, 1940

[America,-Dear, G. C. Anniston.-Klugh, B. G. Auburn. *Poor, R. S. Bankhead.-Armstrong, W. D. Bessemer.-Creveling, J. G. Lindstrom, W. A. McKenzie, W. C. Mitchell, F. R. Birmingham.-Abbott, C. E. Armstrong, G. R. Austin, W. W., Jr. Ball, T. L. Beard, A. H. Benjamin, F. S. Blackburn, E. C. Blair, A. J. Blair, C. S. Blair. H. W.]

Jan 1, 1946

By Burton H. Boyum

Greater depth of exploration drill holes and increasing cost of drilling have been principal factors in reviving interest on the Mar-quette Iron Range in controlled directional drill-hole deflection. This deflection is obtained by the application of the Hall-Row wedging technique. Modifications were made in the technique and equipment in the effort to simplify and strengthen the procedure. The practice is similar in many respects to the oil well type of deflection with a whipstock. Introduction The deflection of diamond drill holes by wedging was a widespread practice in Canada, South Africa and the Lake Superior District as early as 1907 to 1920. Several basic schemes were used, with local variations.&apos; The deflecting wedge assembly was the idea of Mr. Welldon and Mr. Payne-Gallwey operating under the supervision of Mr. William Gallagher of Johannesburg, South Africa. All schemes employed some means of plugging the old hole. A footpiece of various styles was placed in the hole on the plug. In some methods, the orientation of this piece was determined before placing the deflecting wedge. Some techniques permitted continuing the hole the same size after wedging, while others necessitated a size reduction. Interest in wedging diamond drill holes in the Lake Superior District waned after 1920. The Hall-Row patented system for deflecting holes was developed in Canada about 1918.2 Interest centers on the wedging process for the following applications: 1. Maintaining a given course and inclination of the drill hole. 2. By passing an obstruction in a drill hole. 3. Resampling an ore body. 4. Exploring an area overlain by surface conditions not favorable to drilling. During the period of 1913 to 1920, The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. used the wedging technique under a variety of conditions. In general, the practice was not applicable again until 1946. Meanwhile the Hall-Row system of drill-hole deflection survived years of application as the best technique available. In the intervening years, our depth of exploration has increased as well as the overall cost of drilling. As exploration becomes deeper, there is the possible economy of cutting the ore body at a moderate distance from the parent hole without redrilling from surface. Thus a branch hole started near the mid-point of a deep hole can reach the ore horizon at a considerable offset from the parent hole. This permits a greater interval between surface drill holes as drilling becomes deeper. Our interest revived in the subject and a wedging program was initiated. General Description Results The maximum theoretical angular deflection possible, based on the deflecting

Jan 1, 1949

By Burton H. Boyum

Greater depth of exploration drill holes and increasing cost of drilling have been principal factors in reviving interest on the Mar-quette Iron Range in controlled directional drill-hole deflection. This deflection is obtained by the application of the Hall-Row wedging technique. Modifications were made in the technique and equipment in the effort to simplify and strengthen the procedure. The practice is similar in many respects to the oil well type of deflection with a whipstock. Introduction The deflection of diamond drill holes by wedging was a widespread practice in Canada, South Africa and the Lake Superior District as early as 1907 to 1920. Several basic schemes were used, with local variations.&apos; The deflecting wedge assembly was the idea of Mr. Welldon and Mr. Payne-Gallwey operating under the supervision of Mr. William Gallagher of Johannesburg, South Africa. All schemes employed some means of plugging the old hole. A footpiece of various styles was placed in the hole on the plug. In some methods, the orientation of this piece was determined before placing the deflecting wedge. Some techniques permitted continuing the hole the same size after wedging, while others necessitated a size reduction. Interest in wedging diamond drill holes in the Lake Superior District waned after 1920. The Hall-Row patented system for deflecting holes was developed in Canada about 1918.2 Interest centers on the wedging process for the following applications: 1. Maintaining a given course and inclination of the drill hole. 2. By passing an obstruction in a drill hole. 3. Resampling an ore body. 4. Exploring an area overlain by surface conditions not favorable to drilling. During the period of 1913 to 1920, The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. used the wedging technique under a variety of conditions. In general, the practice was not applicable again until 1946. Meanwhile the Hall-Row system of drill-hole deflection survived years of application as the best technique available. In the intervening years, our depth of exploration has increased as well as the overall cost of drilling. As exploration becomes deeper, there is the possible economy of cutting the ore body at a moderate distance from the parent hole without redrilling from surface. Thus a branch hole started near the mid-point of a deep hole can reach the ore horizon at a considerable offset from the parent hole. This permits a greater interval between surface drill holes as drilling becomes deeper. Our interest revived in the subject and a wedging program was initiated. General Description Results The maximum theoretical angular deflection possible, based on the deflecting

Jan 1, 1949